We investigated whether bobcats (Lynx rufus) and domestic cats (Felis catus) exhibit distinct daily activity patterns or use different habitats in the Houston, Texas metropolitan area. Motion-activated cameras were deployed at 33 sites for 16 one-month sampling periods from 2020 - 2024. Bobcats exhibited primarily nocturnal activity wherever they were present. Domestic cats were primarily nocturnal at sites where no bobcats were detected. Bobcats and domestic cats overlapped at sites with a mixture of forest and developed land and domestic cats shifted to more daytime activity. Both spatial and temporal niche partitioning appear to facilitate predator coexistence in urban landscapes.
","acknowledgements":"Many thanks to Courtney Hall, Memorial Park Conservancy; Ethan Placke, Houston Parks Board; and University of Houston students who contributed to field work, photo management, photo tagging, and landcover analysis: field team leaders J. Berg, V. Urdaneta Hernandez, M. Iacampo, C. Rodriguez, K. Kalenga, T. Snyder, A. Uribe, G. Kostecki, D. Farfan, S. Sullivan; data managers J. Cabello, J. Samuel, Q. Le, M. Castro, M. Velez, A. Mendoza, X. Johnson, K. Zinsmeyer, and J. Enriquez; volunteers J. Vasquez and N. Parker, first year students in Honors Biology for Science Majors 1 (2020-2024), and Biology majors in Ecology and Evolution Laboratory (2020 – 2025).
We are grateful to the parks and landowners who hosted cameras: Houston Arboretum and Nature Center, Houston Parks and Recreation Department, Pearland Parks Department, League City Parks and Recreation, Challenger 7 Memorial Park, Glenwood Cemetery, South Park Cemetery, Mount Olivet Catholic Cemetery, Harris County Cemetery, Barrett Station Evergreen Cemetery, Golfcrest Golf Course, Gus Wortham Golf Course, Memorial Park Golf Course, Hermann Park Golf Course, UH Office of Sustainability, and UH Coastal Center.
This manuscript was improved by insightful comments from M.H. Hanke.
","authors":[{"affiliations":["University of Houston","University of Houston"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biomedical Engineering"],"credit":["conceptualization","formalAnalysis","investigation","visualization","writing_originalDraft","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"nmlinde@CougarNet.UH.EDU","firstName":"Natalie","lastName":"Linde","submittingAuthor":false,"correspondingAuthor":false,"equalContribution":false,"WBId":null,"orcid":"0009-0003-0922-1547"},{"affiliations":["University of Houston","University of Houston"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biology and Biochemistry"],"credit":["conceptualization","dataCuration","investigation","validation","writing_originalDraft","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"ssmalik4@CougarNet.UH.EDU","firstName":"Sarah","lastName":"Malik","submittingAuthor":false,"correspondingAuthor":false,"equalContribution":false,"WBId":null,"orcid":"0009-0004-4993-2834 "},{"affiliations":["University of Houston","University of Houston"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biology and Biochemistry"],"credit":["conceptualization","dataCuration","investigation","validation","writing_originalDraft","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"lalavina@CougarNet.UH.EDU","firstName":"Leila","lastName":"Alavi Naini","submittingAuthor":false,"correspondingAuthor":false,"equalContribution":false,"WBId":null,"orcid":"0009-0006-6809-552X"},{"affiliations":["University of Houston","University of Houston"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biology and Biochemistry"],"credit":["conceptualization","dataCuration","investigation","visualization","writing_originalDraft","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"yasyed2@CougarNet.UH.EDU","firstName":"Yasin","lastName":"Syed","submittingAuthor":false,"correspondingAuthor":false,"equalContribution":false,"WBId":null,"orcid":"0009-0002-6376-5556 "},{"affiliations":["University of Houston","University of Houston"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biology and Biochemistry"],"credit":["formalAnalysis","fundingAcquisition","methodology","project","resources","validation","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"aocheek@uh.edu","firstName":"Ann Oliver","lastName":"Cheek","submittingAuthor":true,"correspondingAuthor":true,"equalContribution":false,"WBId":null,"orcid":"ORCID 0009-0005-0386-2057"}],"awards":[],"conflictsOfInterest":null,"dataTable":null,"extendedData":[],"funding":"This work was funded by the University of Houston Office of the Provost Multicultural Student Success Initiative and Cougar Initiative to Engage; the EJK Foundation, and University of Houston Honors College. In-kind support for field work and photo management was provided by Memorial Park Conservancy and Houston Parks Board.
","image":{"url":"https://portal.micropublication.org/uploads/097ac0a98581e4384aad073c2127fcce.jpg"},"imageCaption":"(A) Map of 33 camera sites in the Houston, TX metropolitan area where at least one bobcat or domestic cat was detected within the four-year period, October 1, 2020 to August 31, 2024. Pink markers indicate sites where only domestic cats were detected, blue markers indicate sites where only bobcats were detected, and white markers represent locations where both species were detected. (B and C) Diel activity of domestic cats (pink) and bobcats (blue) across a 24h period at sites where only one of the species occurred (B) and at sites where both species occurred (C). Bar heights in panels B and C are the proportion of species-specific observations per hour.
","imageTitle":"Spatial and diel distribution of bobcats and domestic cats.
","methods":"Trail cameras (Bushnell Trophy Cam HD model 11874C, Bushnell Core Low Glow model 119936C, Stealth Cam G45NG Pro) were mounted at approximately 1 meter above ground to optimize detection of mammals larger than 30 g. Camera sites were spaced at least 1 km apart to minimize detecting the same individual repeatedly. Cameras operated for a minimum of 30 consecutive days per sampling period four times per year - January, April, July, and October.
All photos were annotated independently by two volunteers, with identification discrepancies resolved by an expert reviewer. Metadata, including filename, date, time, and location, were recorded for each detection. Timestamps in the raw data were recorded in Universal Coordinated Time (UTC) and adjusted to local standard time (US Central Standard Time, CST) for analysis. Sunrise and sunset data for Houston, Texas (29.75°N, 95.39°W) were obtained from the U.S. Naval Observatory's Astronomical Applications Department (U.S. Naval Observatory 2025).
Detections from 16 sampling seasons (10/1/2020 - 8/31/2024) were analyzed. Watson’s U2 test was used to compare diel activity between bobcats and domestic cats at sites occupied by only one of the species and at sites occupied by both species. Occupancy was defined as at least one confirmed detection occurring at a site during the study period (Oct 2020 – Aug 2024).
Land cover within a 1 km radius around each camera was characterized according to the National Land Cover Database classification system (MRLC.gov). Area occupied by each land cover type was quantified using Google Earth Pro. For distance calculations, downtown Houston was defined as the location of the 1910 Harris County Courthouse, 29.760890, -95.359704.
","reagents":"","patternDescription":"Predators may reduce interference competition by avoiding interaction with each other, either through spatial or temporal separation. Where spatial overlap occurs, they may change their active period and their preferred prey (Kronfeld-Schor and Dayan, 2003). Human land use also influences predator interactions because larger predators tend to move away from human development or shift to primarily nocturnal activity (Gaynor et al., 2018).
Bobcats (Lynx rufus) and domestic cats (Felis catus) are carnivores with similar diets consisting of a high proportion of rodents and rabbits (Hass, 2009; Kitts-Morgan, 2015; Loss et al., 2013). Habitat preferences create partial spatial separation of these two predators. Bobcats prefer areas with less human development (Horne et al., 2009), while domestic cats are more likely to occur in areas with higher human population density (Herrera et al., 2022). Even in rural areas, domestic cats tend to remain near human infrastructure (Dunford et al., 2024). Bobcats and domestic cats co-occur in rural, suburban, and exurban landscapes (MacDougall and Sander, 2022; Ordenana et al., 2010; Wait et al., 2018), raising the possibility that temporal separation could reduce interference competition.
Bobcats are active during the day and at night, with more detections at night in exurban areas (Mayer et al., 2023; Poisson et al., 2023). Free-ranging domestic cats are active throughout the day and night in some locations (Dunford et al., 2024; Germain et al., 2008; Herrera et al., 2022), but are primarily nocturnal in others (Krauze-Gryz et al., 2012). Although several studies of urban mammal communities mention detections of both domestic cats and bobcats in the same region, no studies have compared space use or activity periods between these two felids.
The objective of this study was to compare diel activity patterns of domestic cats and bobcats where each species occurred without the other and where they occurred together in a large urban area. Motion-activated trail cameras were deployed in parks, cemeteries, golf courses, and natural areas along two transect lines in the Houston, TX metropolitan area (Fig 1A). The Houston metropolitan area covers 22,891 km2 with a population of more than 7 million people (Census Reporter, 2025). To sample activity throughout the year, camera traps were deployed in January (winter), April (spring), July (summer), and October (fall) (Magle et al., 2019). Detection data were pooled across 16 sampling seasons (2020 to 2024) to obtain a general pattern of diel activity for each species.
During 14,386 trap-days from October 1, 2020 to August 31, 2024, we collected a total of 81 bobcat detections and 795 domestic cat detections. Bobcats alone were detected at seven sites with some developed land (mean ± 1 s.d. = 50 ± 19%) and some forest cover (27 ± 13%). All of the bobcat-only sites were more than 13.7 km outside of downtown Houston. Domestic cats alone were detected at 19 sites with a high percentage of developed land (82 ± 14%) and low forest cover (12 ± 13%). Nearly all of these sites were within 12 km of downtown Houston, inside the innermost multi-lane beltway, interstate 610 (Fig 1A). Domestic cats and bobcats overlapped at seven sites with 65% (± 16) developed land and 16% (± 7) forest cover (Fig. 1A). Overlap occurred at sites located 6 – 44 km outside of downtown Houston.
The diel activity patterns of bobcats and domestic cats were similar where only one species occurred without the other (n = 42 bobcat detections; n = 696 domestic cat detections; Watson’s U2 = 0.0753, p < 0.20). Both species were more active at night than during the day (Fig. 1B). At sites without bobcats, 85% of domestic cat detections occurred at night (between sunset and sunrise). At sites without domestic cats, 67% of bobcat detections occurred at night. However, domestic cat and bobcat diel activity differed significantly at sites where the two species overlapped (Fig 1C, n = 32 bobcat detections, n = 99 domestic cat detections; Watson’s U2= 0.189, p < 0.05). Domestic cats were less active at night (51% of detections) and more active during the day (48% of detections) at sites where they co-occurred with bobcats (Fig 1C). Bobcats were primarily active at night, regardless of whether domestic cats were present.
Bobcats and domestic cats had a similar primarily nocturnal activity pattern at sites where only one felid occurred. The primary prey of both species are small nocturnal mammals, including rodents and rabbits. Nocturnal activity may be a strategy that simultaneously matches peak prey activity (Kronfeld-Schor and Dayan 2003) and avoids peak human activity (Gaynor et al., 2018). Where domestic cats and bobcats occupied the same sites, domestic cats shifted their diel activity toward pre-dawn through early morning (03:00 – 10:00) and late day through early night (16:00 – 21:00) with very little activity in the middle of the day or night. In other regions where larger and smaller felids overlap spatially, the smaller species tends to shift or even restrict its active period relative to the larger species to avoid being eaten or to exploit different prey (Hass, 2009). Shifting to more activity in low light periods may allow domestic cats to exploit prey with a similar active period, particularly ground-feeding or ground-nesting birds. Across the United States, birds make up approximately 10% of prey killed by free-ranging domestic cats (Loss et al., 2013).
A combination of spatial and temporal partitioning appears to facilitate coexistence of free-ranging domestic cats and bobcats in the Houston metropolitan area. Where domestic cats and bobcats overlapped spatially, domestic cat activity shifted from primarily nocturnal to the night-day boundary. Temporal niche partitioning may allow domestic cats to avoid interspecific competition with sympatric bobcats.
","references":[{"reference":"Magle SB, Fidino M, Lehrer EW, Gallo T, Mulligan MP, Rios MJ. 2019. Advancing urban wildlife research through a multi-city collaboration. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 17: 232.","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1002/fee.2030"},{"reference":"Hass CC. 2009. Competition and coexistence in sympatric bobcats and pumas. Journal of Zoology. 278: 174.","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1111/j.1469-7998.2009.00565.x"},{"reference":"Kitts-Morgan SE. 2015. Sustainable ecosystems: Domestic cats and their effect on wildlife populations. American Society of Animal Science. 93: 848.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.2527/jas2014-8557"},{"reference":"Loss SR, Will T, Marra PP. 2013. The impact of free-ranging domestic cats on wildlife of the United States. Nature Communications. 4","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1038/ncomms2380"},{"reference":"Horne JS, Haines AM, Tewes ME, Laack LL. 2009. Habitat partitioning by sympathetic ocelots and bobcats: implications for recovery of ocelots in southern Texas. The Southwestern Naturalist. 54: 119.","pubmedId":"","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1894/PS-49.1"},{"reference":"Krauze-Gryz D, Gryz JB, Groszczynski J, Chylarecki P, Zmihorski M. 2012. The good, the bad, and the ugly: space use and intraguild interactions among three opportunistic predators - cat (Felis catus), dog (Canis lupus familiaris), and red fox (Vulpes vulpes) - under human pressure. Canadian Journal of Zoology. 90: 1402.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1139/cjz-2012-0072"},{"reference":"Dunford CE, Loca S, Marks NJ, Scantlebury M. 2024. Seasonal habitat selection and ranging of domestic cats (Felis catus) in rural and urban environments. Animal Biotelemetry. 12","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1186/s40317-024-00367-0"},{"reference":"Herrera DJ, Cove MV, Mc Shea WJ, Decker S, Flockhart DTT, Moore SM, Gallo T. 2022. Spatial and temporal overlap of domestic cats (Felis catus) and native urban wildlife. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 10
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.3389/fevo.2022.1048585"},{"reference":"Germain E, Benhamou S, Poulle ML. 2008. Spatio-temporal sharing between the European wildcat, the domestic cat and their hybrids. Journal of Zoology. 276
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00479.x"},{"reference":"U S Naval Observatory. 2025. Table of sunrise/sunset, moonrise/moonset, or twilight times for an entire year. Astronomical Applications Department
","pubmedId":"","doi":""},{"reference":"Kronfeld-Schor N, Dayan T. 2003. Partitioning of Time as an Ecological Resource. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 34
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132435"},{"reference":"Gaynor KM, Hojnowski CE, Carter NH, Brashares JS. 2018. The influence of human disturbance on wildlife nocturnality. Science. 360: 1232.","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1126/science.aar7121"},{"reference":"Mayer AE, Ganoe LS, Brown C, Gerber BD. 2023. Diel activity structures the occurrence of a mammal community in a human-dominated landscape. Ecology and Evolution. 13","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1002/ece3.10684"},{"reference":"Ordenana MA, Crooks KR, Boydston EE, Fisher RN, Lyren LM, Siudyla S, et al., Van Vren DH. 2010. Effects of urbanization on carnivore species distribution and richness. Journal of Mammalogy. 91: 1322.","pubmedId":"","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1644/09-MAMM-A-312.1"},{"reference":"MacDougall B, Sander H. 2022. Mesopredator occupancy patterns in a small city in an intensively agricultural region. Urban Ecosystems. 25: 1231.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1007/s11252-022-01214-x"},{"reference":"Poisson MKP, Butler AR, Tate P, Bergeron DH, Moll RJ. 2023. Species-specific responses of mammal activity to exurbanization in New Hampshire, USA. Journal of Urban Ecology. 9","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1093/jue/juad010"},{"reference":"Wait KR, Ricketts AM, Ahlers AA. 2018. Land-Use Change Structures Carnivore Communities in Remaining Tallgrass Prairie. The Journal of Wildlife Management. 82: 1491.","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1002/jwmg.21492"},{"reference":"Census Reporter. 2025. https://censusreporter.org/profiles/31000US26420-houston-pasadena-the-woodlands-tx-metro-area/
","pubmedId":"","doi":""}],"title":"Diel Activity Patterns of Bobcats and Domestic Cats in the Houston Metropolitan Area
","reviews":[{"reviewer":{"displayName":"Tal Caspi"},"openAcknowledgement":false,"status":{"submitted":true}}],"curatorReviews":[]},{"id":"574aed55-3163-4801-a033-5cfb7a0977a9","decision":"revise","abstract":"We investigated whether bobcats (Lynx rufus) and domestic cats (Felis catus) exhibit distinct daily activity patterns or use different habitats in the Houston, Texas metropolitan area. Motion-activated cameras were deployed at 33 sites for 16 one-month sampling periods from 2020 - 2024. Bobcats exhibited primarily nocturnal activity wherever they were present. Domestic cats were primarily nocturnal at sites where no bobcats were detected. Bobcats and domestic cats overlapped at sites with a mixture of forest and developed land and domestic cats shifted to more daytime activity. Both temporal and spatial niche partitioning appear to facilitate predator coexistence in urban landscapes.
","acknowledgements":"Many thanks to Courtney Hall, Memorial Park Conservancy; Ethan Placke, Houston Parks Board; and University of Houston students who contributed to field work, photo management, photo tagging, and landcover analysis: field team leaders J. Berg, V. Urdaneta Hernandez, M. Iacampo, C. Rodriguez, K. Kalenga, T. Snyder, A. Uribe, G. Kostecki, D. Farfan, S. Sullivan; data managers J. Cabello, J. Samuel, Q. Le, M. Castro, M. Velez, A. Mendoza, X. Johnson, K. Zinsmeyer, and J. Enriquez; volunteers J. Vasquez and N. Parker, first year students in Honors Biology for Science Majors 1 (2020-2024), and Biology majors in Ecology and Evolution Laboratory (2020 – 2025).
We are grateful to the parks and landowners who hosted cameras: Houston Arboretum and Nature Center, Houston Parks and Recreation Department, Pearland Parks Department, League City Parks and Recreation, Challenger 7 Memorial Park, Glenwood Cemetery, South Park Cemetery, Mount Olivet Catholic Cemetery, Harris County Cemetery, Barrett Station Evergreen Cemetery, Golfcrest Golf Course, Gus Wortham Golf Course, Memorial Park Golf Course, Hermann Park Golf Course, UH Office of Sustainability, and UH Coastal Center.
This manuscript was improved by insightful comments from M.H. Hanke and an anonymous reviewer.
","authors":[{"affiliations":["University of Houston","University of Houston"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biology and Biochemistry"],"credit":["conceptualization","dataCuration","investigation","validation","writing_originalDraft","writing_reviewEditing","formalAnalysis"],"email":"lalavina@CougarNet.UH.EDU","firstName":"Leila","lastName":"Alavi Naini","submittingAuthor":false,"correspondingAuthor":false,"equalContribution":true,"WBId":null,"orcid":"0009-0006-6809-552X"},{"affiliations":["University of Houston","University of Houston"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biomedical Engineering"],"credit":["conceptualization","formalAnalysis","investigation","visualization","writing_originalDraft","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"nmlinde@CougarNet.UH.EDU","firstName":"Natalie","lastName":"Linde","submittingAuthor":false,"correspondingAuthor":false,"equalContribution":true,"WBId":null,"orcid":"0009-0003-0922-1547"},{"affiliations":["University of Houston","University of Houston"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biology and Biochemistry"],"credit":["conceptualization","dataCuration","investigation","validation","writing_originalDraft","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"ssmalik4@CougarNet.UH.EDU","firstName":"Sarah","lastName":"Malik","submittingAuthor":false,"correspondingAuthor":false,"equalContribution":true,"WBId":null,"orcid":"0009-0004-4993-2834 "},{"affiliations":["University of Houston","University of Houston"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biology and Biochemistry"],"credit":["conceptualization","dataCuration","investigation","visualization","writing_originalDraft","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"yasyed2@CougarNet.UH.EDU","firstName":"Yasin","lastName":"Syed","submittingAuthor":false,"correspondingAuthor":false,"equalContribution":true,"WBId":null,"orcid":"0009-0002-6376-5556 "},{"affiliations":["University of Houston","University of Houston"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biology and Biochemistry"],"credit":["formalAnalysis","fundingAcquisition","methodology","project","resources","validation","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"aocheek@uh.edu","firstName":"Ann Oliver","lastName":"Cheek","submittingAuthor":true,"correspondingAuthor":true,"equalContribution":false,"WBId":null,"orcid":"ORCID 0009-0005-0386-2057"}],"awards":[],"conflictsOfInterest":"The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.
","dataTable":{"url":null},"extendedData":[],"funding":"This work was funded by the University of Houston Office of the Provost Multicultural Student Success Initiative and Cougar Initiative to Engage; the EJK Foundation, and University of Houston Honors College. In-kind support for field work and photo management was provided by Memorial Park Conservancy and Houston Parks Board.
","image":{"url":"https://portal.micropublication.org/uploads/b4b6c42e53559f8073cfb53e0c74721a.png"},"imageCaption":"(A) US state of Texas. Red square indicates the city of Houston. (B) Map of 33 camera sites in the Houston, TX metropolitan area where at least one bobcat or domestic cat was detected during the four-year period, October 1, 2020 to August 31, 2024. Blue markers indicate sites where only bobcats were detected, pink markers indicate sites where only domestic cats were detected, and white markers represent locations where both species were detected. (C and D) Diel activity of bobcats (blue) and domestic cats (pink) across a 24h period at sites where only one of the species occurred (C) and at sites where both species occurred (D). Bar heights in panels C and D are the proportion of species-specific observations per hour.
","imageTitle":"Spatial and diel distribution of bobcats and domestic cats.
","methods":"Trail cameras (Bushnell Trophy Cam HD model 11874C, Bushnell Core Low Glow model 119936C, Stealth Cam G45NG Pro) were mounted at approximately 1 meter above ground to optimize detection of mammals larger than 30 g. Camera sites were spaced at least 1 km apart to minimize detecting the same individual repeatedly. Cameras operated for a minimum of 30 consecutive days per sampling period four times per year - January, April, July, and October.
All photos were annotated independently by two volunteers, with identification discrepancies resolved by an expert reviewer. Filename, date, time, and location were recorded for each detection. Detections from 16 sampling seasons (10/1/2020 - 8/31/2024) were analyzed. Analyses were conducted in R (R Core Team, 2026). Data management was performed using the readr (Wickham et al., 2026) and dplyr (Wickham et al., 2026) packages. Timestamps in the raw data were recorded in Universal Coordinated Time (UTC). UTC timestamps were converted to local time using the lubridate package (Grolemund & Wickham, 2011), transformed to radians, and converted to solar time using the sunTime function in the overlap package (Meredith et al., 2024). SunTime standardizes observation times relative to sunrise and sunset based on observation date and geographic coordinates. Temporal overlap between bobcat and domestic cat activity was estimated as Δ̂ using the overlap package. Overlap between species-specific activity patterns was calculated separately for sites where each species occurred alone versus sites where both species occurred. Watson’s U2 test was used to compare diel activity between bobcats and domestic cats at sites occupied by only one of the species and at sites occupied by both species. Occupancy was defined as at least one confirmed detection occurring at a site during the study period (Oct 2020 – Aug 2024). Statistical analyses were performed in MATLAB 24.1.0.2537033 (2024b).
Camera locations were mapped and land cover within a 1 km radius around each camera was visualized using Google Earth Pro on Desktop (https://www.google.com/earth/about/versions/#earth-pro). Land cover classes surrounding each site were characterized according to the modified Anderson Level II classification system (USGS, 2024). Area occupied by each land cover type was quantified using the freehand polygon measurement tool in Google Earth Pro on Desktop. Downtown Houston was defined as the location of the 1910 Harris County Courthouse, 29.760890, -95.359704. Map inset showing Texas within the United States was created using Gemini Flash 3.5 and specifying datum WGS 84.
The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee reviewed this study and determined that no protocol was required because animals are not handled nor are they disturbed by the cameras.
","reagents":"","patternDescription":"Predators may reduce interference competition by avoiding interaction with each other, either through spatial or temporal separation. Where spatial overlap occurs, they may change their active period and their preferred prey (Kronfeld-Schor and Dayan, 2003). Human land use also influences predator interactions because larger predators tend to move away from human development or shift to primarily nocturnal activity (Gaynor et al., 2018).
Bobcats (Lynx rufus) and domestic cats (Felis catus) are carnivores with similar diets consisting of a high proportion of rodents and rabbits (Hass, 2009; Kitts-Morgan, 2015; Loss et al., 2013). Habitat preferences create partial spatial separation of these two predators. Bobcats prefer areas with less human development (Horne et al., 2009), while domestic cats are more likely to occur in areas with higher human population density (Herrera et al., 2022). Even in rural areas, domestic cats tend to remain near human infrastructure (Dunford et al., 2024). Bobcats and domestic cats co-occur in rural, suburban, and exurban landscapes (MacDougall and Sander, 2022; Ordenana et al., 2010; Wait et al., 2018), raising the possibility that temporal separation could reduce interference competition.
Bobcats are active during the day and at night, with more detections at night in exurban areas (Mayer et al., 2023; Poisson et al., 2023). Free-ranging domestic cats are active throughout the day and night in some locations (Dunford et al., 2024; Germain et al., 2008; Herrera et al., 2022), but are primarily nocturnal in others (Krauze-Gryz et al., 2012). Although several studies of urban mammal communities mention detections of both domestic cats and bobcats in the same region, no studies have compared space use or activity periods between these two felids.
The objective of this study was to compare diel activity patterns of bobcats and domestic cats where each species occurred without the other and where they occurred together across a large urban area. Motion-activated trail cameras were deployed in parks, cemeteries, golf courses, and natural areas along two transect lines in the Houston, TX metropolitan area (Fig 1A and B). The Houston metropolitan area covers 22,891 km2 with a population of more than 7 million people (Census Reporter, 2025). To sample activity throughout the year, camera traps were deployed in January (winter), April (spring), July (summer), and October (fall) (Magle et al., 2019). Detection data were pooled across 16 sampling seasons (2020 to 2024) to obtain a general pattern of diel activity for each species.
During 14,386 trap-days from October 1, 2020 to August 31, 2024, we collected a total of 81 bobcat detections and 795 domestic cat detections. Bobcats alone were detected at seven sites, all of which were more than 13.7 km outside of downtown Houston (Fig 1B). Across these seven sites, developed land accounted for a mean of 50% (± 19%, 1 s.d.) of the land cover within a 1 km radius of the camera and forest accounted for 27% (± 13%) of land cover. Domestic cats alone were detected at 19 sites. Nearly all of these sites were within 12 km of downtown Houston, inside the innermost multi-lane beltway, interstate 610 (Fig 1B). Across these 19 sites, developed land constituted 82 ± 14% (mean ± 1 s.d.) of land cover within the camera buffer, whereas forest accounted for 12 ± 13%). Bobcats and domestic cats overlapped at seven sites where 65% (± 16%) of land cover was developed land and 16% (± 7%) was forest (Fig. 1B). Spatial overlap occurred at sites located 6 – 44 km outside of downtown Houston.
The diel activity patterns of bobcats and domestic cats were similar where only one species occurred without the other (Fig 1C, n = 49 bobcat detections; n = 696 domestic cat detections; Watson’s U2 = 0.0753, p < 0.20). Both species were more active at night than during the day, with high overlap between their diel activity patterns, overlap coefficient Δ̂ = 0.852. At sites occupied only by bobcats, 67% of bobcat detections occurred at night. At sites with domestic cats but no bobcats, 85% of domestic cat detections occurred at night. Where the two species co-occurred spatially, only 51% of domestic cat detections occurred at night. In contrast, bobcats were still primarily active at night. Activity patterns of the two species overlapped much less, Δ̂ = 0.647. Domestic cat diel activity differed significantly from bobcat activity (Fig 1D, n = 32 bobcat detections; n = 99 domestic cat detections; Watson’s U2 = 0.189, p < 0.05).
Bobcats and domestic cats had a similar primarily nocturnal activity pattern at sites where only one felid occurred. The primary prey of both species are small nocturnal mammals, including rodents and rabbits. Nocturnal activity may be a strategy that simultaneously matches peak prey activity (Kronfeld-Schor and Dayan 2003) and avoids peak human activity (Gaynor et al., 2018). Where domestic cats and bobcats occupied the same sites, domestic cats shifted their diel activity toward pre-dawn through early morning (03:00 – 10:00) and late day through early night (16:00 – 21:00) with very little activity in the middle of the day or night. This shift is evident in the smaller Δ̂ overlap coefficient for domestic cat and bobcat activity at sites where both species were present. In other regions where larger and smaller felids overlap spatially, the smaller species tends to shift or even restrict its active period relative to the larger species to avoid being eaten or to exploit different prey (Hass, 2009). Shifting to more activity in low light periods at dawn and dusk may allow free-ranging domestic cats to reduce potential encounters with bobcats, thereby reducing the threat of predation. Additionally, changing their active period may allow domestic cats to exploit prey with a similar active period, particularly ground-feeding or ground-nesting birds. Across the United States, birds make up approximately 10% of prey killed by free-ranging domestic cats (Loss et al., 2013). Domestic cats are often assumed to depend on humans for food, but few domestic cats observed in this study were collared, raising the possibility that they survive by hunting.
A combination of spatial and temporal partitioning appears to facilitate coexistence of bobcats and free-ranging domestic cats in the Houston metropolitan area. Bobcats were detected more frequently in areas with ≤ 65% developed land cover, while domestic cats were detected more frequently in areas with ≥ 65% developed land cover. Where domestic cats and bobcats overlapped spatially, domestic cat activity shifted from primarily nocturnal to the night-day boundary. Temporal niche partitioning may allow domestic cats to avoid interspecific competition with sympatric bobcats.
","references":[{"reference":"Census Reporter. 2025. https://censusreporter.org/profiles/31000US26420-houston-pasadena-the-woodlands-tx-metro-area/
","pubmedId":"","doi":""},{"reference":"Dunford CE, Loca S, Marks NJ, Scantlebury M. 2024. Seasonal habitat selection and ranging of domestic cats (Felis catus) in rural and urban environments. Animal Biotelemetry 12: 10.1186/s40317-024-00367-0.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1186/s40317-024-00367-0"},{"reference":"Gaynor KM, Hojnowski CE, Carter NH, Brashares JS. 2018. The influence of human disturbance on wildlife nocturnality. Science 360: 1232-1235.
","pubmedId":"","doi":" 10.1126/science.aar7121"},{"reference":"Germain E, Benhamou S, Poulle ML. 2008. Spatio-temporal sharing between the European wildcat, the domestic cat and their hybrids. Journal of Zoology. 276
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00479.x"},{"reference":"Grolemund G, Wickham H. 2011. Dates and Times Made Easy withlubridate. Journal of Statistical Software 40: 10.18637/jss.v040.i03.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.18637/jss.v040.i03"},{"reference":"Hass CC. 2009. Competition and coexistence in sympatric bobcats and pumas. Journal of Zoology 278: 174-180.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1111/j.1469-7998.2009.00565.x"},{"reference":"Herrera DJ, Cove MV, Mc Shea WJ, Decker S, Flockhart DTT, Moore SM, Gallo T. 2022. Spatial and temporal overlap of domestic cats (Felis catus) and native urban wildlife. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 10
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.3389/fevo.2022.1048585"},{"reference":"Horne JS, Haines AM, Tewes ME, Laack LL. 2009. Habitat Partitioning by Sympatric Ocelots and Bobcats: Implications for Recovery of Ocelots in Southern Texas. The Southwestern Naturalist 54: 119-126.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1894/PS-49.1"},{"reference":"Kitts-Morgan SE. 2015. Sustainable ecosystems: Domestic cats and their effect on wildlife populations. American Society of Animal Science. 93: 848.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.2527/jas2014-8557"},{"reference":"Krauze-Gryz D, Gryz JB, Groszczynski J, Chylarecki P, Zmihorski M. 2012. The good, the bad, and the ugly: space use and intraguild interactions among three opportunistic predators - cat (Felis catus), dog (Canis lupus familiaris), and red fox (Vulpes vulpes) - under human pressure. Canadian Journal of Zoology. 90: 1402.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1139/cjz-2012-0072"},{"reference":"Kronfeld-Schor N, Dayan T. 2003. Partitioning of Time as an Ecological Resource. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 34
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132435"},{"reference":"Loss SR, Will T, Marra PP. 2013. The impact of free-ranging domestic cats on wildlife of the United States. Nature Communications 4: 10.1038/ncomms2380.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1038/ncomms2380"},{"reference":"MacDougall B, Sander H. 2022. Mesopredator occupancy patterns in a small city in an intensively agricultural region. Urban Ecosystems. 25: 1231.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1007/s11252-022-01214-x"},{"reference":"Magle SB, Fidino M, Lehrer EW, Gallo T, Mulligan MP, Rios MJ. 2019. Advancing urban wildlife research through a multi-city collaboration. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 17: 232.","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1002/fee.2030"},{"reference":"Mayer AE, Ganoe LS, Brown C, Gerber BD. 2023. Diel activity structures the occurrence of a mammal community in a human-dominated landscape. Ecology and Evolution. 13","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1002/ece3.10684"},{"reference":"Meredith M, Ridout M, Campbell LAD. 2013. overlap: Estimates of Coefficient of Overlapping for Animal Activity Patterns. CRAN: Contributed Packages : 10.32614/cran.package.overlap.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"doi.org/10.32614/CRAN.package.overlap"},{"reference":"Ordenana MA, Crooks KR, Boydston EE, Fisher RN, Lyren LM, Siudyla S, et al., Van Vren DH. 2010. Effects of urbanization on carnivore species distribution and richness. Journal of Mammalogy. 91: 1322.","pubmedId":"","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1644/09-MAMM-A-312.1"},{"reference":"Poisson MKP, Butler AR, Tate P, Bergeron DH, Moll RJ. 2023. Species-specific responses of mammal activity to exurbanization in New Hampshire, USA. Journal of Urban Ecology 9: 10.1093/jue/juad010.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1093/jue/juad010"},{"reference":"R Core Team. 2000. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. : 10.32614/r.manuals.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.32614/R.manuals"},{"reference":"U.S. Geological Survey. 2024. “Annual NLCD Land Cover Classification.” https://www.usgs.gov/centers/eros/science/annual-nlcd-land-cover-classification Accessed 06-05-2026.
","pubmedId":"","doi":""},{"reference":"Wait KR, Ricketts AM, Ahlers AA. 2018. Land-Use Change Structures Carnivore Communities in Remaining Tallgrass Prairie. The Journal of Wildlife Management. 82: 1491.","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1002/jwmg.21492"},{"reference":"Wickham H, Hester J, Bryan J. 2015. readr: Read Rectangular Text Data. CRAN: Contributed Packages : 10.32614/cran.package.readr.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.32614/CRAN.package.readr"},{"reference":"Wickham H, François R, Henry L, Müller K, Vaughan D. 2014. dplyr: A Grammar of Data Manipulation. CRAN: Contributed Packages : 10.32614/cran.package.dplyr.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.32614/CRAN.package.dplyr"}],"title":"Diel Activity Patterns of Bobcats and Domestic Cats in the Houston Metropolitan Area
","reviews":[{"reviewer":{"displayName":"Tal Caspi"},"openAcknowledgement":false,"status":{"submitted":true}}],"curatorReviews":[]},{"id":"ea1da10e-31a2-46e6-b5fd-923f85b61db2","decision":"edit","abstract":"We investigated whether bobcats (Lynx rufus) and domestic cats (Felis catus) exhibit distinct daily activity patterns or use different habitats in the Houston, Texas metropolitan area. Motion-activated cameras were deployed at 33 sites for 16 one-month sampling periods from 2020 - 2024. Bobcats exhibited primarily nocturnal activity wherever they were present. Domestic cats were primarily nocturnal at sites where no bobcats were detected. Bobcats and domestic cats overlapped at sites with a mixture of forest and developed land and domestic cats shifted to more daytime activity. Both temporal and spatial niche partitioning appear to facilitate predator coexistence in urban landscapes.
","acknowledgements":"Many thanks to Courtney Hall, Memorial Park Conservancy; Ethan Placke, Houston Parks Board; and University of Houston students who contributed to field work, photo management, photo tagging, and landcover analysis: field team leaders J. Berg, V. Urdaneta Hernandez, M. Iacampo, C. Rodriguez, K. Kalenga, T. Snyder, A. Uribe, G. Kostecki, D. Farfan, S. Sullivan; data managers J. Cabello, J. Samuel, Q. Le, M. Castro, M. Velez, A. Mendoza, X. Johnson, K. Zinsmeyer, and J. Enriquez; volunteers J. Vasquez and N. Parker, first year students in Honors Biology for Science Majors 1 (2020-2024), and Biology majors in Ecology and Evolution Laboratory (2020 – 2025).
We are grateful to the parks and landowners who hosted cameras: Houston Arboretum and Nature Center, Houston Parks and Recreation Department, Pearland Parks Department, League City Parks and Recreation, Challenger 7 Memorial Park, Glenwood Cemetery, South Park Cemetery, Mount Olivet Catholic Cemetery, Harris County Cemetery, Barrett Station Evergreen Cemetery, Golfcrest Golf Course, Gus Wortham Golf Course, Memorial Park Golf Course, Hermann Park Golf Course, UH Office of Sustainability, and UH Coastal Center.
This manuscript was improved by insightful comments from M.H. Hanke and an anonymous reviewer.
","authors":[{"affiliations":["University of Houston","University of Houston"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biology and Biochemistry"],"credit":["conceptualization","dataCuration","investigation","validation","writing_originalDraft","writing_reviewEditing","formalAnalysis"],"email":"lalavina@CougarNet.UH.EDU","firstName":"Leila","lastName":"Alavi Naini","submittingAuthor":false,"correspondingAuthor":false,"equalContribution":true,"WBId":null,"orcid":"0009-0006-6809-552X"},{"affiliations":["University of Houston","University of Houston"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biomedical Engineering"],"credit":["conceptualization","formalAnalysis","investigation","visualization","writing_originalDraft","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"nmlinde@CougarNet.UH.EDU","firstName":"Natalie","lastName":"Linde","submittingAuthor":false,"correspondingAuthor":false,"equalContribution":true,"WBId":null,"orcid":"0009-0003-0922-1547"},{"affiliations":["University of Houston","University of Houston"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biology and Biochemistry"],"credit":["conceptualization","dataCuration","investigation","validation","writing_originalDraft","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"ssmalik4@CougarNet.UH.EDU","firstName":"Sarah","lastName":"Malik","submittingAuthor":false,"correspondingAuthor":false,"equalContribution":true,"WBId":null,"orcid":"0009-0004-4993-2834 "},{"affiliations":["University of Houston","University of Houston"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biology and Biochemistry"],"credit":["conceptualization","dataCuration","investigation","visualization","writing_originalDraft","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"yasyed2@CougarNet.UH.EDU","firstName":"Yasin","lastName":"Syed","submittingAuthor":false,"correspondingAuthor":false,"equalContribution":true,"WBId":null,"orcid":"0009-0002-6376-5556 "},{"affiliations":["University of Houston","University of Houston"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biology and Biochemistry"],"credit":["formalAnalysis","fundingAcquisition","methodology","project","resources","validation","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"aocheek@uh.edu","firstName":"Ann Oliver","lastName":"Cheek","submittingAuthor":true,"correspondingAuthor":true,"equalContribution":false,"WBId":null,"orcid":"ORCID 0009-0005-0386-2057"}],"awards":[],"conflictsOfInterest":"The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.
","dataTable":{"url":null},"extendedData":[],"funding":"This work was funded by the University of Houston Office of the Provost Multicultural Student Success Initiative and Cougar Initiative to Engage; the EJK Foundation, and University of Houston Honors College. In-kind support for field work and photo management was provided by Memorial Park Conservancy and Houston Parks Board.
","image":{"url":"https://portal.micropublication.org/uploads/b4b6c42e53559f8073cfb53e0c74721a.png"},"imageCaption":"(A) US state of Texas. Red square indicates the city of Houston. (B) Map of 33 camera sites in the Houston, TX metropolitan area where at least one bobcat or domestic cat was detected during the four-year period, October 1, 2020 to August 31, 2024. Blue markers indicate sites where only bobcats were detected, pink markers indicate sites where only domestic cats were detected, and white markers represent locations where both species were detected. (C and D) Diel activity of bobcats (blue) and domestic cats (pink) across a 24h period at sites where only one of the species occurred (C) and at sites where both species occurred (D). Bar heights in panels C and D are the proportion of species-specific observations per hour.
","imageTitle":"Spatial and diel distribution of bobcats and domestic cats.
","methods":"Trail cameras (Bushnell Trophy Cam HD model 11874C, Bushnell Core Low Glow model 119936C, Stealth Cam G45NG Pro) were mounted at approximately 1 meter above ground to optimize detection of mammals larger than 30 g. Camera sites were spaced at least 1 km apart to minimize detecting the same individual repeatedly. Cameras operated for a minimum of 30 consecutive days per sampling period four times per year - January, April, July, and October.
All photos were annotated independently by two volunteers, with identification discrepancies resolved by an expert reviewer. Filename, date, time, and location were recorded for each detection. Detections from 16 sampling seasons (10/1/2020 - 8/31/2024) were analyzed. Analyses were conducted in R (R Core Team, 2026). Data management was performed using the readr (Wickham et al., 2026) and dplyr (Wickham et al., 2026) packages. Timestamps in the raw data were recorded in Universal Coordinated Time (UTC). UTC timestamps were converted to local time using the lubridate package (Grolemund & Wickham, 2011), transformed to radians, and converted to solar time using the sunTime function in the overlap package (Meredith et al., 2024). SunTime standardizes observation times relative to sunrise and sunset based on observation date and geographic coordinates. Temporal overlap between bobcat and domestic cat activity was estimated as Δ̂ using the overlap package. Overlap between species-specific activity patterns was calculated separately for sites where each species occurred alone versus sites where both species occurred. Watson’s U2 test was used to compare diel activity between bobcats and domestic cats at sites occupied by only one of the species and at sites occupied by both species. Occupancy was defined as at least one confirmed detection occurring at a site during the study period (Oct 2020 – Aug 2024). Watson's U2 test was performed in MATLAB 24.1.0.2537033 (2024b).
Camera locations were mapped and land cover within a 1 km radius around each camera was visualized using Google Earth Pro on Desktop (https://www.google.com/earth/about/versions/#earth-pro). Land cover classes surrounding each site were characterized according to the modified Anderson Level II classification system (USGS, 2024). Area occupied by each land cover type was quantified using the freehand polygon measurement tool in Google Earth Pro on Desktop. Downtown Houston was defined as the location of the 1910 Harris County Courthouse, 29.760890, -95.359704. Map inset showing Texas within the United States was created using Gemini Flash 3.5 and specifying datum WGS 84.
The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee reviewed this study and determined that no protocol was required because animals are not handled nor are they disturbed by the cameras.
","reagents":"","patternDescription":"Predators may reduce interference competition by avoiding interaction with each other, either through spatial or temporal separation. Where spatial overlap occurs, they may change their active period and their preferred prey (Kronfeld-Schor and Dayan, 2003). Human land use also influences predator interactions because larger predators tend to move away from human development or shift to primarily nocturnal activity (Gaynor et al., 2018).
Bobcats (Lynx rufus) and free-ranging, unowned domestic cats (Felis catus) are carnivores with similar diets consisting of a high proportion of rodents and rabbits (Hass, 2009; Kitts-Morgan, 2015; Loss et al., 2013). Habitat preferences create partial spatial separation of these two predators. Bobcats prefer areas with less human development (Horne et al., 2009), while domestic cats are more likely to occur in areas with higher human population density (Herrera et al., 2022). Even in rural areas, domestic cats tend to remain near human infrastructure (Dunford et al., 2024). Bobcats and domestic cats co-occur in rural, suburban, and exurban landscapes (MacDougall and Sander, 2022; Ordenana et al., 2010; Wait et al., 2018), raising the possibility that temporal separation could reduce interference competition.
Bobcats are active during the day and at night, with more detections at night in exurban areas (Mayer et al., 2023; Poisson et al., 2023). Free-ranging domestic cats are active throughout the day and night in some locations (Dunford et al., 2024; Germain et al., 2008; Herrera et al., 2022), but are primarily nocturnal in others (Krauze-Gryz et al., 2012). Although several studies of urban mammal communities mention detections of both domestic cats and bobcats in the same region, no studies have compared space use or activity periods between these two felids.
The objective of this study was to compare diel activity patterns of bobcats and domestic cats where each species occurred without the other and where they occurred together across a large urban area. Motion-activated trail cameras were deployed in parks, cemeteries, golf courses, and natural areas along two transect lines in the Houston, TX metropolitan area (Fig 1A and B). The Houston metropolitan area covers 22,891 km2 with a population of more than 7 million people (Census Reporter, 2025). To sample activity throughout the year, camera traps were deployed in January (winter), April (spring), July (summer), and October (fall) (Magle et al., 2019). Detection data were pooled across 16 sampling seasons (2020 to 2024) to obtain a general pattern of diel activity for each species.
During 14,386 trap-days from October 1, 2020 to August 31, 2024, we collected a total of 81 bobcat detections and 795 domestic cat detections across 33 sites. Bobcats alone were detected at seven sites, all of which were more than 13.7 km outside of downtown Houston (Fig 1B). Across these seven sites, developed land accounted for a mean of 50% (± 19%, 1 s.d.) of the land cover within a 1 km radius of the camera and forest accounted for 27% (± 13%) of land cover. Domestic cats alone were detected at 19 sites. Nearly all of these sites were within 12 km of downtown Houston, inside the innermost multi-lane beltway, interstate 610 (Fig 1B). Across these 19 sites, developed land constituted 82 ± 14% (mean ± 1 s.d.) of land cover within the camera buffer, whereas forest accounted for 12 ± 13%). Bobcats and domestic cats overlapped at seven sites where 65% (± 16%) of land cover was developed land and 16% (± 7%) was forest (Fig. 1B). Spatial overlap occurred at sites located 6 – 44 km outside of downtown Houston.
The diel activity patterns of bobcats and domestic cats were similar where only one species occurred without the other (Fig 1C, n = 49 bobcat detections; n = 696 domestic cat detections; Watson’s U2 = 0.0753, p < 0.20). Both species were more active at night than during the day, with high overlap between their diel activity patterns, overlap coefficient Δ̂ = 0.852. At sites occupied only by bobcats, 67% of bobcat detections occurred at night. At sites with domestic cats but no bobcats, 85% of domestic cat detections occurred at night. Where the two species co-occurred spatially, bobcats were still primarily active at night. In contrast, only 51% of domestic cat detections occurred at night. Activity patterns of the two species overlapped much less where they co-occurred, Δ̂ = 0.647. Domestic cat diel activity differed significantly from bobcat activity (Fig 1D, n = 32 bobcat detections; n = 99 domestic cat detections; Watson’s U2 = 0.189, p < 0.05).
Bobcats and domestic cats had a similar primarily nocturnal activity pattern at sites where only one felid occurred. Both species prey on small nocturnal mammals, including rodents and rabbits. Nocturnal activity may be a strategy that simultaneously matches peak prey activity (Kronfeld-Schor and Dayan 2003) and avoids peak human activity (Gaynor et al., 2018). Where domestic cats and bobcats occupied the same sites, domestic cats shifted their diel activity toward pre-dawn through early morning (03:00 – 10:00) and late day through early night (16:00 – 21:00) with very little activity in the middle of the day or night. This shift is evident in the smaller Δ̂ overlap coefficient for domestic cat and bobcat activity at sites where both species were present. In other regions where larger and smaller felids overlap spatially, the smaller species tends to shift or even restrict its active period relative to the larger species to avoid being eaten or to exploit different prey (Hass, 2009). Shifting to more activity in low light periods at dawn and dusk may allow free-ranging domestic cats to reduce potential encounters with bobcats, thereby reducing the threat of predation. Additionally, changing their active period may allow domestic cats to exploit prey with a similar active period, particularly ground-feeding or ground-nesting birds. Across the United States, birds make up approximately 10% of prey killed by free-ranging domestic cats (Loss et al., 2013). Domestic cats are often assumed to depend on humans for food, but few domestic cats observed in this study were collared, raising the possibility that they survive by hunting.
A combination of spatial and temporal partitioning appears to facilitate coexistence of bobcats and free-ranging domestic cats in the Houston metropolitan area. Bobcats were detected more frequently in areas with ≤ 65% developed land cover, while domestic cats were detected more frequently in areas with ≥ 65% developed land cover. Where domestic cats and bobcats overlapped spatially, domestic cat activity shifted from primarily nocturnal to the night-day boundary. Temporal niche partitioning may allow domestic cats to avoid interspecific competition with sympatric bobcats.
","references":[{"reference":"Census Reporter. 2025. https://censusreporter.org/profiles/31000US26420-houston-pasadena-the-woodlands-tx-metro-area/
","pubmedId":"","doi":""},{"reference":"Dunford CE, Loca S, Marks NJ, Scantlebury M. 2024. Seasonal habitat selection and ranging of domestic cats (Felis catus) in rural and urban environments. Animal Biotelemetry 12: 10.1186/s40317-024-00367-0.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1186/s40317-024-00367-0"},{"reference":"Gaynor KM, Hojnowski CE, Carter NH, Brashares JS. 2018. The influence of human disturbance on wildlife nocturnality. Science 360: 1232-1235.
","pubmedId":"","doi":" 10.1126/science.aar7121"},{"reference":"Germain E, Benhamou S, Poulle ML. 2008. Spatio-temporal sharing between the European wildcat, the domestic cat and their hybrids. Journal of Zoology. 276
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00479.x"},{"reference":"Grolemund G, Wickham H. 2011. Dates and Times Made Easy withlubridate. Journal of Statistical Software 40: 10.18637/jss.v040.i03.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.18637/jss.v040.i03"},{"reference":"Hass CC. 2009. Competition and coexistence in sympatric bobcats and pumas. Journal of Zoology 278: 174-180.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1111/j.1469-7998.2009.00565.x"},{"reference":"Herrera DJ, Cove MV, Mc Shea WJ, Decker S, Flockhart DTT, Moore SM, Gallo T. 2022. Spatial and temporal overlap of domestic cats (Felis catus) and native urban wildlife. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 10
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.3389/fevo.2022.1048585"},{"reference":"Horne JS, Haines AM, Tewes ME, Laack LL. 2009. Habitat Partitioning by Sympatric Ocelots and Bobcats: Implications for Recovery of Ocelots in Southern Texas. The Southwestern Naturalist 54: 119-126.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1894/PS-49.1"},{"reference":"Kitts-Morgan SE. 2015. Sustainable ecosystems: Domestic cats and their effect on wildlife populations. American Society of Animal Science. 93: 848.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.2527/jas2014-8557"},{"reference":"Krauze-Gryz D, Gryz JB, Groszczynski J, Chylarecki P, Zmihorski M. 2012. The good, the bad, and the ugly: space use and intraguild interactions among three opportunistic predators - cat (Felis catus), dog (Canis lupus familiaris), and red fox (Vulpes vulpes) - under human pressure. Canadian Journal of Zoology. 90: 1402.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1139/cjz-2012-0072"},{"reference":"Kronfeld-Schor N, Dayan T. 2003. Partitioning of Time as an Ecological Resource. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 34
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132435"},{"reference":"Loss SR, Will T, Marra PP. 2013. The impact of free-ranging domestic cats on wildlife of the United States. Nature Communications 4: 10.1038/ncomms2380.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1038/ncomms2380"},{"reference":"MacDougall B, Sander H. 2022. Mesopredator occupancy patterns in a small city in an intensively agricultural region. Urban Ecosystems. 25: 1231.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1007/s11252-022-01214-x"},{"reference":"Magle SB, Fidino M, Lehrer EW, Gallo T, Mulligan MP, Rios MJ. 2019. Advancing urban wildlife research through a multi-city collaboration. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 17: 232.","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1002/fee.2030"},{"reference":"Mayer AE, Ganoe LS, Brown C, Gerber BD. 2023. Diel activity structures the occurrence of a mammal community in a human-dominated landscape. Ecology and Evolution. 13","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1002/ece3.10684"},{"reference":"Meredith M, Ridout M, Campbell LAD. 2013. overlap: Estimates of Coefficient of Overlapping for Animal Activity Patterns. CRAN: Contributed Packages : 10.32614/cran.package.overlap.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"doi.org/10.32614/CRAN.package.overlap"},{"reference":"Ordenana MA, Crooks KR, Boydston EE, Fisher RN, Lyren LM, Siudyla S, et al., Van Vren DH. 2010. Effects of urbanization on carnivore species distribution and richness. Journal of Mammalogy. 91: 1322.","pubmedId":"","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1644/09-MAMM-A-312.1"},{"reference":"Poisson MKP, Butler AR, Tate P, Bergeron DH, Moll RJ. 2023. Species-specific responses of mammal activity to exurbanization in New Hampshire, USA. Journal of Urban Ecology 9: 10.1093/jue/juad010.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1093/jue/juad010"},{"reference":"R Core Team. 2000. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. : 10.32614/r.manuals.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.32614/R.manuals"},{"reference":"U.S. Geological Survey. 2024. “Annual NLCD Land Cover Classification.” https://www.usgs.gov/centers/eros/science/annual-nlcd-land-cover-classification Accessed 06-05-2026.
","pubmedId":"","doi":""},{"reference":"Wait KR, Ricketts AM, Ahlers AA. 2018. Land-Use Change Structures Carnivore Communities in Remaining Tallgrass Prairie. The Journal of Wildlife Management. 82: 1491.","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1002/jwmg.21492"},{"reference":"Wickham H, Hester J, Bryan J. 2015. readr: Read Rectangular Text Data. CRAN: Contributed Packages : 10.32614/cran.package.readr.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.32614/CRAN.package.readr"},{"reference":"Wickham H, François R, Henry L, Müller K, Vaughan D. 2014. dplyr: A Grammar of Data Manipulation. CRAN: Contributed Packages : 10.32614/cran.package.dplyr.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.32614/CRAN.package.dplyr"}],"title":"Diel Activity Patterns of Bobcats and Domestic Cats in the Houston Metropolitan Area
","reviews":[],"curatorReviews":[]},{"id":"adaceedd-3706-49aa-aac0-604ff838ab40","decision":"accept","abstract":"We investigated whether bobcats (Lynx rufus) and domestic cats (Felis catus) exhibit distinct daily activity patterns or use different habitats in the Houston, Texas metropolitan area. Motion-activated cameras were deployed at 33 sites for 16 one-month sampling periods from 2020 - 2024. Bobcats exhibited primarily nocturnal activity wherever they were present. Domestic cats were primarily nocturnal at sites where no bobcats were detected. Bobcats and domestic cats overlapped at sites with a mixture of forest and developed land and domestic cats shifted to more daytime activity. Both temporal and spatial niche partitioning appear to facilitate predator coexistence in urban landscapes.
","acknowledgements":"Many thanks to Courtney Hall, Memorial Park Conservancy; Ethan Placke, Houston Parks Board; and University of Houston students who contributed to field work, photo management, photo tagging, and landcover analysis: field team leaders J. Berg, V. Urdaneta Hernandez, M. Iacampo, C. Rodriguez, K. Kalenga, T. Snyder, A. Uribe, G. Kostecki, D. Farfan, S. Sullivan; data managers J. Cabello, J. Samuel, Q. Le, M. Castro, M. Velez, A. Mendoza, X. Johnson, K. Zinsmeyer, and J. Enriquez; volunteers J. Vasquez and N. Parker, first year students in Honors Biology for Science Majors 1 (2020-2024), and Biology majors in Ecology and Evolution Laboratory (2020 – 2025).
We are grateful to the parks and landowners who hosted cameras: Houston Arboretum and Nature Center, Houston Parks and Recreation Department, Pearland Parks Department, League City Parks and Recreation, Challenger 7 Memorial Park, Glenwood Cemetery, South Park Cemetery, Mount Olivet Catholic Cemetery, Harris County Cemetery, Barrett Station Evergreen Cemetery, Golfcrest Golf Course, Gus Wortham Golf Course, Memorial Park Golf Course, Hermann Park Golf Course, UH Office of Sustainability, and UH Coastal Center.
This manuscript was improved by insightful comments from M.H. Hanke and an anonymous reviewer.
","authors":[{"affiliations":["University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States","University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biology and Biochemistry"],"credit":["conceptualization","dataCuration","investigation","validation","writing_originalDraft","writing_reviewEditing","formalAnalysis"],"email":"lalavina@CougarNet.UH.EDU","firstName":"Leila","lastName":"Alavi Naini","submittingAuthor":false,"correspondingAuthor":false,"equalContribution":true,"WBId":null,"orcid":"0009-0006-6809-552X"},{"affiliations":["University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States","University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biomedical Engineering"],"credit":["conceptualization","formalAnalysis","investigation","visualization","writing_originalDraft","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"nmlinde@CougarNet.UH.EDU","firstName":"Natalie","lastName":"Linde","submittingAuthor":false,"correspondingAuthor":false,"equalContribution":true,"WBId":null,"orcid":"0009-0003-0922-1547"},{"affiliations":["University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States","University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biology and Biochemistry"],"credit":["conceptualization","dataCuration","investigation","validation","writing_originalDraft","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"ssmalik4@CougarNet.UH.EDU","firstName":"Sarah","lastName":"Malik","submittingAuthor":false,"correspondingAuthor":false,"equalContribution":true,"WBId":null,"orcid":"0009-0004-4993-2834 "},{"affiliations":["University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States","University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biology and Biochemistry"],"credit":["conceptualization","dataCuration","investigation","visualization","writing_originalDraft","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"yasyed2@CougarNet.UH.EDU","firstName":"Yasin","lastName":"Syed","submittingAuthor":false,"correspondingAuthor":false,"equalContribution":true,"WBId":null,"orcid":"0009-0002-6376-5556 "},{"affiliations":["University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States","University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biology and Biochemistry"],"credit":["formalAnalysis","fundingAcquisition","methodology","project","resources","validation","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"aocheek@uh.edu","firstName":"Ann Oliver","lastName":"Cheek","submittingAuthor":true,"correspondingAuthor":true,"equalContribution":false,"WBId":null,"orcid":"ORCID 0009-0005-0386-2057"}],"awards":[],"conflictsOfInterest":"The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.
","dataTable":{"url":null},"extendedData":[],"funding":"This work was funded by the University of Houston Office of the Provost Multicultural Student Success Initiative and Cougar Initiative to Engage; the EJK Foundation, and University of Houston Honors College. In-kind support for field work and photo management was provided by Memorial Park Conservancy and Houston Parks Board.
","image":{"url":"https://portal.micropublication.org/uploads/b4b6c42e53559f8073cfb53e0c74721a.png"},"imageCaption":"(A) US state of Texas. Red square indicates the city of Houston. (B) Map of 33 camera sites in the Houston, TX metropolitan area where at least one bobcat or domestic cat was detected during the four-year period, October 1, 2020 to August 31, 2024. Blue markers indicate sites where only bobcats were detected, pink markers indicate sites where only domestic cats were detected, and white markers represent locations where both species were detected. (C and D) Diel activity of bobcats (blue) and domestic cats (pink) across a 24h period at sites where only one of the species occurred (C) and at sites where both species occurred (D). Bar heights in panels C and D are the proportion of species-specific observations per hour.
","imageTitle":"Spatial and diel distribution of bobcats and domestic cats
","methods":"Trail cameras (Bushnell Trophy Cam HD model 11874C, Bushnell Core Low Glow model 119936C, Stealth Cam G45NG Pro) were mounted at approximately 1 meter above ground to optimize detection of mammals larger than 30 g. Camera sites were spaced at least 1 km apart to minimize detecting the same individual repeatedly. Cameras operated for a minimum of 30 consecutive days per sampling period four times per year - January, April, July, and October.
All photos were annotated independently by two volunteers, with identification discrepancies resolved by an expert reviewer. Filename, date, time, and location were recorded for each detection. Detections from 16 sampling seasons (10/1/2020 - 8/31/2024) were analyzed. Analyses were conducted in R (R Core Team, 2026). Data management was performed using the readr (Wickham et al., 2026) and dplyr (Wickham et al., 2026) packages. Timestamps in the raw data were recorded in Universal Coordinated Time (UTC). UTC timestamps were converted to local time using the lubridate package (Grolemund & Wickham, 2011), transformed to radians, and converted to solar time using the sunTime function in the overlap package (Meredith et al., 2024). SunTime standardizes observation times relative to sunrise and sunset based on observation date and geographic coordinates. Temporal overlap between bobcat and domestic cat activity was estimated as Δ̂ using the overlap package. Overlap between species-specific activity patterns was calculated separately for sites where each species occurred alone versus sites where both species occurred. Watson’s U2 test was used to compare diel activity between bobcats and domestic cats at sites occupied by only one of the species and at sites occupied by both species. Occupancy was defined as at least one confirmed detection occurring at a site during the study period (Oct 2020 – Aug 2024). Watson's U2 test was performed in MATLAB 24.1.0.2537033 (2024b).
Camera locations were mapped and land cover within a 1 km radius around each camera was visualized using Google Earth Pro on Desktop (https://www.google.com/earth/about/versions/#earth-pro). Land cover classes surrounding each site were characterized according to the modified Anderson Level II classification system (USGS, 2024). Area occupied by each land cover type was quantified using the freehand polygon measurement tool in Google Earth Pro on Desktop. Downtown Houston was defined as the location of the 1910 Harris County Courthouse, 29.760890, -95.359704. Map inset showing Texas within the United States was created using Gemini Flash 3.5 and specifying datum WGS 84.
The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee reviewed this study and determined that no protocol was required because animals are not handled nor are they disturbed by the cameras.
","reagents":"","patternDescription":"Predators may reduce interference competition by avoiding interaction with each other, either through spatial or temporal separation. Where spatial overlap occurs, they may change their active period and their preferred prey (Kronfeld-Schor and Dayan, 2003). Human land use also influences predator interactions because larger predators tend to move away from human development or shift to primarily nocturnal activity (Gaynor et al., 2018).
Bobcats (Lynx rufus) and free-ranging, unowned domestic cats (Felis catus) are carnivores with similar diets consisting of a high proportion of rodents and rabbits (Hass, 2009; Kitts-Morgan, 2015; Loss et al., 2013). Habitat preferences create partial spatial separation of these two predators. Bobcats prefer areas with less human development (Horne et al., 2009), while domestic cats are more likely to occur in areas with higher human population density (Herrera et al., 2022). Even in rural areas, domestic cats tend to remain near human infrastructure (Dunford et al., 2024). Bobcats and domestic cats co-occur in rural, suburban, and exurban landscapes (MacDougall and Sander, 2022; Ordenana et al., 2010; Wait et al., 2018), raising the possibility that temporal separation could reduce interference competition.
Bobcats are active during the day and at night, with more detections at night in exurban areas (Mayer et al., 2023; Poisson et al., 2023). Free-ranging domestic cats are active throughout the day and night in some locations (Dunford et al., 2024; Germain et al., 2008; Herrera et al., 2022), but are primarily nocturnal in others (Krauze-Gryz et al., 2012). Although several studies of urban mammal communities mention detections of both domestic cats and bobcats in the same region, no studies have compared space use or activity periods between these two felids.
The objective of this study was to compare diel activity patterns of bobcats and domestic cats where each species occurred without the other and where they occurred together across a large urban area. Motion-activated trail cameras were deployed in parks, cemeteries, golf courses, and natural areas along two transect lines in the Houston, TX metropolitan area (Fig 1A and B). The Houston metropolitan area covers 22,891 km2 with a population of more than 7 million people (Census Reporter, 2025). To sample activity throughout the year, camera traps were deployed in January (winter), April (spring), July (summer), and October (fall) (Magle et al., 2019). Detection data were pooled across 16 sampling seasons (2020 to 2024) to obtain a general pattern of diel activity for each species.
During 14,386 trap-days from October 1, 2020 to August 31, 2024, we collected a total of 81 bobcat detections and 795 domestic cat detections across 33 sites. Bobcats alone were detected at seven sites, all of which were more than 13.7 km outside of downtown Houston (Fig 1B). Across these seven sites, developed land accounted for a mean of 50% (± 19%, 1 s.d.) of the land cover within a 1 km radius of the camera and forest accounted for 27% (± 13%) of land cover. Domestic cats alone were detected at 19 sites. Nearly all of these sites were within 12 km of downtown Houston, inside the innermost multi-lane beltway, interstate 610 (Fig 1B). Across these 19 sites, developed land constituted 82 ± 14% (mean ± 1 s.d.) of land cover within the camera buffer, whereas forest accounted for 12 ± 13%). Bobcats and domestic cats overlapped at seven sites where 65% (± 16%) of land cover was developed land and 16% (± 7%) was forest (Fig. 1B). Spatial overlap occurred at sites located 6 – 44 km outside of downtown Houston.
The diel activity patterns of bobcats and domestic cats were similar where only one species occurred without the other (Fig 1C, n = 49 bobcat detections; n = 696 domestic cat detections; Watson’s U2 = 0.0753, p < 0.20). Both species were more active at night than during the day, with high overlap between their diel activity patterns, overlap coefficient Δ̂ = 0.852. At sites occupied only by bobcats, 67% of bobcat detections occurred at night. At sites with domestic cats but no bobcats, 85% of domestic cat detections occurred at night. Where the two species co-occurred spatially, bobcats were still primarily active at night. In contrast, only 51% of domestic cat detections occurred at night. Activity patterns of the two species overlapped much less where they co-occurred, Δ̂ = 0.647. Domestic cat diel activity differed significantly from bobcat activity (Fig 1D, n = 32 bobcat detections; n = 99 domestic cat detections; Watson’s U2 = 0.189, p < 0.05).
Bobcats and domestic cats had a similar primarily nocturnal activity pattern at sites where only one felid occurred. Both species prey on small nocturnal mammals, including rodents and rabbits. Nocturnal activity may be a strategy that simultaneously matches peak prey activity (Kronfeld-Schor and Dayan 2003) and avoids peak human activity (Gaynor et al., 2018). Where domestic cats and bobcats occupied the same sites, domestic cats shifted their diel activity toward pre-dawn through early morning (03:00 – 10:00) and late day through early night (16:00 – 21:00) with very little activity in the middle of the day or night. This shift is evident in the smaller Δ̂ overlap coefficient for domestic cat and bobcat activity at sites where both species were present. In other regions where larger and smaller felids overlap spatially, the smaller species tends to shift or even restrict its active period relative to the larger species to avoid being eaten or to exploit different prey (Hass, 2009). Shifting to more activity in low light periods at dawn and dusk may allow free-ranging domestic cats to reduce potential encounters with bobcats, thereby reducing the threat of predation. Additionally, changing their active period may allow domestic cats to exploit prey with a similar active period, particularly ground-feeding or ground-nesting birds. Across the United States, birds make up approximately 10% of prey killed by free-ranging domestic cats (Loss et al., 2013). Domestic cats are often assumed to depend on humans for food, but few domestic cats observed in this study were collared, raising the possibility that they survive by hunting.
A combination of spatial and temporal partitioning appears to facilitate coexistence of bobcats and free-ranging domestic cats in the Houston metropolitan area. Bobcats were detected more frequently in areas with ≤ 65% developed land cover, while domestic cats were detected more frequently in areas with ≥ 65% developed land cover. Where domestic cats and bobcats overlapped spatially, domestic cat activity shifted from primarily nocturnal to the night-day boundary. Temporal niche partitioning may allow domestic cats to avoid interspecific competition with sympatric bobcats.
","references":[{"reference":"Census Reporter. 2025. https://censusreporter.org/profiles/31000US26420-houston-pasadena-the-woodlands-tx-metro-area/
","pubmedId":"","doi":""},{"reference":"Dunford CE, Loca S, Marks NJ, Scantlebury M. 2024. Seasonal habitat selection and ranging of domestic cats (Felis catus) in rural and urban environments. Animal Biotelemetry 12: 10.1186/s40317-024-00367-0.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1186/s40317-024-00367-0"},{"reference":"Gaynor KM, Hojnowski CE, Carter NH, Brashares JS. 2018. The influence of human disturbance on wildlife nocturnality. Science 360: 1232-1235.
","pubmedId":"","doi":" 10.1126/science.aar7121"},{"reference":"Germain E, Benhamou S, Poulle ML. 2008. Spatio-temporal sharing between the European wildcat, the domestic cat and their hybrids. Journal of Zoology. 276
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00479.x"},{"reference":"Grolemund G, Wickham H. 2011. Dates and Times Made Easy withlubridate. Journal of Statistical Software 40: 10.18637/jss.v040.i03.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.18637/jss.v040.i03"},{"reference":"Hass CC. 2009. Competition and coexistence in sympatric bobcats and pumas. Journal of Zoology 278: 174-180.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1111/j.1469-7998.2009.00565.x"},{"reference":"Herrera DJ, Cove MV, Mc Shea WJ, Decker S, Flockhart DTT, Moore SM, Gallo T. 2022. Spatial and temporal overlap of domestic cats (Felis catus) and native urban wildlife. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 10
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.3389/fevo.2022.1048585"},{"reference":"Horne JS, Haines AM, Tewes ME, Laack LL. 2009. Habitat Partitioning by Sympatric Ocelots and Bobcats: Implications for Recovery of Ocelots in Southern Texas. The Southwestern Naturalist 54: 119-126.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1894/PS-49.1"},{"reference":"Kitts-Morgan SE. 2015. Sustainable ecosystems: Domestic cats and their effect on wildlife populations. American Society of Animal Science. 93: 848.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.2527/jas2014-8557"},{"reference":"Krauze-Gryz D, Gryz JB, Groszczynski J, Chylarecki P, Zmihorski M. 2012. The good, the bad, and the ugly: space use and intraguild interactions among three opportunistic predators - cat (Felis catus), dog (Canis lupus familiaris), and red fox (Vulpes vulpes) - under human pressure. Canadian Journal of Zoology. 90: 1402.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1139/cjz-2012-0072"},{"reference":"Kronfeld-Schor N, Dayan T. 2003. Partitioning of Time as an Ecological Resource. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 34
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132435"},{"reference":"Loss SR, Will T, Marra PP. 2013. The impact of free-ranging domestic cats on wildlife of the United States. Nature Communications 4: 10.1038/ncomms2380.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1038/ncomms2380"},{"reference":"MacDougall B, Sander H. 2022. Mesopredator occupancy patterns in a small city in an intensively agricultural region. Urban Ecosystems. 25: 1231.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1007/s11252-022-01214-x"},{"reference":"Magle SB, Fidino M, Lehrer EW, Gallo T, Mulligan MP, Rios MJ. 2019. Advancing urban wildlife research through a multi-city collaboration. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 17: 232.","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1002/fee.2030"},{"reference":"Mayer AE, Ganoe LS, Brown C, Gerber BD. 2023. Diel activity structures the occurrence of a mammal community in a human-dominated landscape. Ecology and Evolution. 13","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1002/ece3.10684"},{"reference":"Meredith M, Ridout M, Campbell LAD. 2013. overlap: Estimates of Coefficient of Overlapping for Animal Activity Patterns. CRAN: Contributed Packages : 10.32614/cran.package.overlap.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"doi.org/10.32614/CRAN.package.overlap"},{"reference":"Ordenana MA, Crooks KR, Boydston EE, Fisher RN, Lyren LM, Siudyla S, et al., Van Vren DH. 2010. Effects of urbanization on carnivore species distribution and richness. Journal of Mammalogy. 91: 1322.","pubmedId":"","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1644/09-MAMM-A-312.1"},{"reference":"Poisson MKP, Butler AR, Tate P, Bergeron DH, Moll RJ. 2023. Species-specific responses of mammal activity to exurbanization in New Hampshire, USA. Journal of Urban Ecology 9: 10.1093/jue/juad010.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1093/jue/juad010"},{"reference":"R Core Team. 2000. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. : 10.32614/r.manuals.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.32614/R.manuals"},{"reference":"U.S. Geological Survey. 2024. “Annual NLCD Land Cover Classification.” https://www.usgs.gov/centers/eros/science/annual-nlcd-land-cover-classification Accessed 06-05-2026.
","pubmedId":"","doi":""},{"reference":"Wait KR, Ricketts AM, Ahlers AA. 2018. Land-Use Change Structures Carnivore Communities in Remaining Tallgrass Prairie. The Journal of Wildlife Management. 82: 1491.","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1002/jwmg.21492"},{"reference":"Wickham H, Hester J, Bryan J. 2015. readr: Read Rectangular Text Data. CRAN: Contributed Packages : 10.32614/cran.package.readr.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.32614/CRAN.package.readr"},{"reference":"Wickham H, François R, Henry L, Müller K, Vaughan D. 2014. dplyr: A Grammar of Data Manipulation. CRAN: Contributed Packages : 10.32614/cran.package.dplyr.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.32614/CRAN.package.dplyr"}],"title":"Diel Activity Patterns of Bobcats and Domestic Cats in the Houston Metropolitan Area
","reviews":[],"curatorReviews":[]},{"id":"10182e34-77d7-4cca-8371-aed253e7cde9","decision":"publish","abstract":"We investigated whether bobcats (Lynx rufus) and domestic cats (Felis catus) exhibit distinct daily activity patterns or use different habitats in the Houston, Texas metropolitan area. Motion-activated cameras were deployed at 33 sites for 16 one-month sampling periods from 2020 - 2024. Bobcats exhibited primarily nocturnal activity wherever they were present. Domestic cats were primarily nocturnal at sites where no bobcats were detected. Bobcats and domestic cats overlapped at sites with a mixture of forest and developed land and domestic cats shifted to more daytime activity. Both temporal and spatial niche partitioning appear to facilitate predator coexistence in urban landscapes.
","acknowledgements":"Many thanks to Courtney Hall, Memorial Park Conservancy; Ethan Placke, Houston Parks Board; and University of Houston students who contributed to field work, photo management, photo tagging, and landcover analysis: field team leaders J. Berg, V. Urdaneta Hernandez, M. Iacampo, C. Rodriguez, K. Kalenga, T. Snyder, A. Uribe, G. Kostecki, D. Farfan, S. Sullivan; data managers J. Cabello, J. Samuel, Q. Le, M. Castro, M. Velez, A. Mendoza, X. Johnson, K. Zinsmeyer, and J. Enriquez; volunteers J. Vasquez, S. Dreyer, and N. Parker, first year students in Honors Biology for Science Majors 1 (2020-2024), and Biology majors in Ecology and Evolution Laboratory (2020 – 2025).
We are grateful to the parks and landowners who hosted cameras: Houston Arboretum and Nature Center, Houston Parks and Recreation Department, Pearland Parks Department, League City Parks and Recreation, Challenger 7 Memorial Park, Glenwood Cemetery, South Park Cemetery, Mount Olivet Catholic Cemetery, Harris County Cemetery, Barrett Station Evergreen Cemetery, Golfcrest Golf Course, Gus Wortham Golf Course, Memorial Park Golf Course, Hermann Park Golf Course, UH Office of Sustainability, and UH Coastal Center.
This manuscript was improved by insightful comments from M.H. Hanke and an anonymous reviewer.
","authors":[{"affiliations":["University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States","University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biology and Biochemistry"],"credit":["conceptualization","dataCuration","investigation","validation","writing_originalDraft","writing_reviewEditing","formalAnalysis"],"email":"lalavina@CougarNet.UH.EDU","firstName":"Leila","lastName":"Alavi Naini","submittingAuthor":false,"correspondingAuthor":false,"equalContribution":true,"WBId":null,"orcid":"0009-0006-6809-552X"},{"affiliations":["University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States","University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biomedical Engineering"],"credit":["conceptualization","formalAnalysis","investigation","visualization","writing_originalDraft","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"nmlinde@CougarNet.UH.EDU","firstName":"Natalie","lastName":"Linde","submittingAuthor":false,"correspondingAuthor":false,"equalContribution":true,"WBId":null,"orcid":"0009-0003-0922-1547"},{"affiliations":["University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States","University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biology and Biochemistry"],"credit":["conceptualization","dataCuration","investigation","validation","writing_originalDraft","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"ssmalik4@CougarNet.UH.EDU","firstName":"Sarah","lastName":"Malik","submittingAuthor":false,"correspondingAuthor":false,"equalContribution":true,"WBId":null,"orcid":"0009-0004-4993-2834 "},{"affiliations":["University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States","University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biology and Biochemistry"],"credit":["conceptualization","dataCuration","investigation","visualization","writing_originalDraft","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"yasyed2@CougarNet.UH.EDU","firstName":"Yasin","lastName":"Syed","submittingAuthor":false,"correspondingAuthor":false,"equalContribution":true,"WBId":null,"orcid":"0009-0002-6376-5556 "},{"affiliations":["University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States","University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biology and Biochemistry"],"credit":["formalAnalysis","fundingAcquisition","methodology","project","resources","validation","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"aocheek@uh.edu","firstName":"Ann Oliver","lastName":"Cheek","submittingAuthor":true,"correspondingAuthor":true,"equalContribution":false,"WBId":null,"orcid":"ORCID 0009-0005-0386-2057"}],"awards":[],"conflictsOfInterest":"The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.
","dataTable":{"url":null},"extendedData":[],"funding":"This work was funded by the University of Houston Office of the Provost Multicultural Student Success Initiative and Cougar Initiative to Engage; the EJK Foundation, and University of Houston Honors College. In-kind support for field work and photo management was provided by Memorial Park Conservancy and Houston Parks Board.
","image":{"url":"https://portal.micropublication.org/uploads/b4b6c42e53559f8073cfb53e0c74721a.png"},"imageCaption":"(A) US state of Texas. Red square indicates the city of Houston. (B) Map of 33 camera sites in the Houston, TX metropolitan area where at least one bobcat or domestic cat was detected during the four-year period, October 1, 2020 to August 31, 2024. Blue markers indicate sites where only bobcats were detected, pink markers indicate sites where only domestic cats were detected, and white markers represent locations where both species were detected. (C and D) Diel activity of bobcats (blue) and domestic cats (pink) across a 24h period at sites where only one of the species occurred (C) and at sites where both species occurred (D). Bar heights in panels C and D are the proportion of species-specific observations per hour.
","imageTitle":"Spatial and diel distribution of bobcats and domestic cats
","methods":"Trail cameras (Bushnell Trophy Cam HD model 11874C, Bushnell Core Low Glow model 119936C, Stealth Cam G45NG Pro) were mounted at approximately 1 meter above ground to optimize detection of mammals larger than 30 g. Camera sites were spaced at least 1 km apart to minimize detecting the same individual repeatedly. Cameras operated for a minimum of 30 consecutive days per sampling period four times per year - January, April, July, and October.
All photos were annotated independently by two volunteers, with identification discrepancies resolved by an expert reviewer. Filename, date, time, and location were recorded for each detection. Detections from 16 sampling seasons (10/1/2020 - 8/31/2024) were analyzed. Analyses were conducted in R (R Core Team, 2026). Data management was performed using the readr (Wickham et al., 2026) and dplyr (Wickham et al., 2026) packages. Timestamps in the raw data were recorded in Universal Coordinated Time (UTC). UTC timestamps were converted to local time using the lubridate package (Grolemund & Wickham, 2011), transformed to radians, and converted to solar time using the sunTime function in the overlap package (Meredith et al., 2024). SunTime standardizes observation times relative to sunrise and sunset based on observation date and geographic coordinates. Temporal overlap between bobcat and domestic cat activity was estimated as Δ̂ using the overlap package. Overlap between species-specific activity patterns was calculated separately for sites where each species occurred alone versus sites where both species occurred. Watson’s U2 test was used to compare diel activity between bobcats and domestic cats at sites occupied by only one of the species and at sites occupied by both species. Occupancy was defined as at least one confirmed detection occurring at a site during the study period (Oct 2020 – Aug 2024). Watson's U2 test was performed in MATLAB 24.1.0.2537033 (2024b).
Camera locations were mapped and land cover within a 1 km radius around each camera was visualized using Google Earth Pro on Desktop (https://www.google.com/earth/about/versions/#earth-pro). Land cover classes surrounding each site were characterized according to the modified Anderson Level II classification system (USGS, 2024). Area occupied by each land cover type was quantified using the freehand polygon measurement tool in Google Earth Pro on Desktop. Downtown Houston was defined as the location of the 1910 Harris County Courthouse, 29.760890, -95.359704. Map inset showing Texas within the United States was created using Gemini Flash 3.5 and specifying datum WGS 84.
The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee reviewed this study and determined that no protocol was required because animals are not handled nor are they disturbed by the cameras.
Animal detection data, MatLab script and R script are available at datadryad.org, DOI: 10.5061/dryad.s4mw6m9jg
","reagents":"","patternDescription":"Predators may reduce interference competition by avoiding interaction with each other, either through spatial or temporal separation. Where spatial overlap occurs, they may change their active period and their preferred prey (Kronfeld-Schor and Dayan, 2003). Human land use also influences predator interactions because larger predators tend to move away from human development or shift to primarily nocturnal activity (Gaynor et al., 2018).
Bobcats (Lynx rufus) and free-ranging, unowned domestic cats (Felis catus) are carnivores with similar diets consisting of a high proportion of rodents and rabbits (Hass, 2009; Kitts-Morgan, 2015; Loss et al., 2013). Habitat preferences create partial spatial separation of these two predators. Bobcats prefer areas with less human development (Horne et al., 2009), while domestic cats are more likely to occur in areas with higher human population density (Herrera et al., 2022). Even in rural areas, domestic cats tend to remain near human infrastructure (Dunford et al., 2024). Bobcats and domestic cats co-occur in rural, suburban, and exurban landscapes (MacDougall and Sander, 2022; Ordenana et al., 2010; Wait et al., 2018), raising the possibility that temporal separation could reduce interference competition.
Bobcats are active during the day and at night, with more detections at night in exurban areas (Mayer et al., 2023; Poisson et al., 2023). Free-ranging domestic cats are active throughout the day and night in some locations (Dunford et al., 2024; Germain et al., 2008; Herrera et al., 2022), but are primarily nocturnal in others (Krauze-Gryz et al., 2012). Although several studies of urban mammal communities mention detections of both domestic cats and bobcats in the same region, no studies have compared space use or activity periods between these two felids.
The objective of this study was to compare diel activity patterns of bobcats and domestic cats where each species occurred without the other and where they occurred together across a large urban area. Motion-activated trail cameras were deployed in parks, cemeteries, golf courses, and natural areas along two transect lines in the Houston, TX metropolitan area (Fig 1A and B). The Houston metropolitan area covers 22,891 km2 with a population of more than 7 million people (Census Reporter, 2025). To sample activity throughout the year, camera traps were deployed in January (winter), April (spring), July (summer), and October (fall) (Magle et al., 2019). Detection data were pooled across 16 sampling seasons (2020 to 2024) to obtain a general pattern of diel activity for each species.
During 14,386 trap-days from October 1, 2020 to August 31, 2024, we collected a total of 81 bobcat detections and 795 domestic cat detections across 33 sites. Bobcats alone were detected at seven sites, all of which were more than 13.7 km outside of downtown Houston (Fig 1B). Across these seven sites, developed land accounted for a mean of 50% (± 19%, 1 s.d.) of the land cover within a 1 km radius of the camera and forest accounted for 27% (± 13%) of land cover. Domestic cats alone were detected at 19 sites. Nearly all of these sites were within 12 km of downtown Houston, inside the innermost multi-lane beltway, interstate 610 (Fig 1B). Across these 19 sites, developed land constituted 82 ± 14% (mean ± 1 s.d.) of land cover within the camera buffer, whereas forest accounted for 12 ± 13%). Bobcats and domestic cats overlapped at seven sites where 65% (± 16%) of land cover was developed land and 16% (± 7%) was forest (Fig. 1B). Spatial overlap occurred at sites located 6 – 44 km outside of downtown Houston.
The diel activity patterns of bobcats and domestic cats were similar where only one species occurred without the other (Fig 1C, n = 49 bobcat detections; n = 696 domestic cat detections; Watson’s U2 = 0.0753, p < 0.20). Both species were more active at night than during the day, with high overlap between their diel activity patterns, overlap coefficient Δ̂ = 0.852. At sites occupied only by bobcats, 67% of bobcat detections occurred at night. At sites with domestic cats but no bobcats, 85% of domestic cat detections occurred at night. Where the two species co-occurred spatially, bobcats were still primarily active at night. In contrast, only 51% of domestic cat detections occurred at night. Activity patterns of the two species overlapped much less where they co-occurred, Δ̂ = 0.647. Domestic cat diel activity differed significantly from bobcat activity (Fig 1D, n = 32 bobcat detections; n = 99 domestic cat detections; Watson’s U2 = 0.189, p < 0.05).
Bobcats and domestic cats had a similar primarily nocturnal activity pattern at sites where only one felid occurred. Both species prey on small nocturnal mammals, including rodents and rabbits. Nocturnal activity may be a strategy that simultaneously matches peak prey activity (Kronfeld-Schor and Dayan 2003) and avoids peak human activity (Gaynor et al., 2018). Where domestic cats and bobcats occupied the same sites, domestic cats shifted their diel activity toward pre-dawn through early morning (03:00 – 10:00) and late day through early night (16:00 – 21:00) with very little activity in the middle of the day or night. This shift is evident in the smaller Δ̂ overlap coefficient for domestic cat and bobcat activity at sites where both species were present. In other regions where larger and smaller felids overlap spatially, the smaller species tends to shift or even restrict its active period relative to the larger species to avoid being eaten or to exploit different prey (Hass, 2009). Shifting to more activity in low light periods at dawn and dusk may allow free-ranging domestic cats to reduce potential encounters with bobcats, thereby reducing the threat of predation. Additionally, changing their active period may allow domestic cats to exploit prey with a similar active period, particularly ground-feeding or ground-nesting birds. Across the United States, birds make up approximately 10% of prey killed by free-ranging domestic cats (Loss et al., 2013). Domestic cats are often assumed to depend on humans for food, but few domestic cats observed in this study were collared, raising the possibility that they survive by hunting.
A combination of spatial and temporal partitioning appears to facilitate coexistence of bobcats and free-ranging domestic cats in the Houston metropolitan area. Bobcats were detected more frequently in areas with ≤ 65% developed land cover, while domestic cats were detected more frequently in areas with ≥ 65% developed land cover. Where domestic cats and bobcats overlapped spatially, domestic cat activity shifted from primarily nocturnal to the night-day boundary. Temporal niche partitioning may allow domestic cats to avoid interspecific competition with sympatric bobcats.
","references":[{"reference":"Census Reporter. 2025. https://censusreporter.org/profiles/31000US26420-houston-pasadena-the-woodlands-tx-metro-area/
","pubmedId":"","doi":""},{"reference":"Dunford CE, Loca S, Marks NJ, Scantlebury M. 2024. Seasonal habitat selection and ranging of domestic cats (Felis catus) in rural and urban environments. Animal Biotelemetry 12: 10.1186/s40317-024-00367-0.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1186/s40317-024-00367-0"},{"reference":"Gaynor KM, Hojnowski CE, Carter NH, Brashares JS. 2018. The influence of human disturbance on wildlife nocturnality. Science 360: 1232-1235.
","pubmedId":"","doi":" 10.1126/science.aar7121"},{"reference":"Germain E, Benhamou S, Poulle ML. 2008. Spatio-temporal sharing between the European wildcat, the domestic cat and their hybrids. Journal of Zoology. 276
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00479.x"},{"reference":"Grolemund G, Wickham H. 2011. Dates and Times Made Easy with lubridate. Journal of Statistical Software 40: 10.18637/jss.v040.i03.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.18637/jss.v040.i03"},{"reference":"Hass CC. 2009. Competition and coexistence in sympatric bobcats and pumas. Journal of Zoology 278: 174-180.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1111/j.1469-7998.2009.00565.x"},{"reference":"Herrera DJ, Cove MV, Mc Shea WJ, Decker S, Flockhart DTT, Moore SM, Gallo T. 2022. Spatial and temporal overlap of domestic cats (Felis catus) and native urban wildlife. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 10
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.3389/fevo.2022.1048585"},{"reference":"Horne JS, Haines AM, Tewes ME, Laack LL. 2009. Habitat Partitioning by Sympatric Ocelots and Bobcats: Implications for Recovery of Ocelots in Southern Texas. The Southwestern Naturalist 54: 119-126.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1894/PS-49.1"},{"reference":"Kitts-Morgan SE. 2015. Sustainable ecosystems: Domestic cats and their effect on wildlife populations. American Society of Animal Science. 93: 848.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.2527/jas2014-8557"},{"reference":"Krauze-Gryz D, Gryz JB, Groszczynski J, Chylarecki P, Zmihorski M. 2012. The good, the bad, and the ugly: space use and intraguild interactions among three opportunistic predators - cat (Felis catus), dog (Canis lupus familiaris), and red fox (Vulpes vulpes) - under human pressure. Canadian Journal of Zoology. 90: 1402.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1139/cjz-2012-0072"},{"reference":"Kronfeld-Schor N, Dayan T. 2003. Partitioning of Time as an Ecological Resource. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 34
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132435"},{"reference":"Loss SR, Will T, Marra PP. 2013. The impact of free-ranging domestic cats on wildlife of the United States. Nature Communications 4: 10.1038/ncomms2380.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1038/ncomms2380"},{"reference":"MacDougall B, Sander H. 2022. Mesopredator occupancy patterns in a small city in an intensively agricultural region. Urban Ecosystems. 25: 1231.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1007/s11252-022-01214-x"},{"reference":"Magle SB, Fidino M, Lehrer EW, Gallo T, Mulligan MP, Rios MJ. 2019. Advancing urban wildlife research through a multi-city collaboration. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 17: 232.","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1002/fee.2030"},{"reference":"Mayer AE, Ganoe LS, Brown C, Gerber BD. 2023. Diel activity structures the occurrence of a mammal community in a human-dominated landscape. Ecology and Evolution. 13","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1002/ece3.10684"},{"reference":"Meredith M, Ridout M, Campbell LAD. 2026. overlap: Estimates of Coefficient of Overlapping for Animal Activity Patterns. CRAN: Contributed Packages : 10.32614/cran.package.overlap.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"doi.org/10.32614/CRAN.package.overlap"},{"reference":"Ordenana MA, Crooks KR, Boydston EE, Fisher RN, Lyren LM, Siudyla S, et al., Van Vren DH. 2010. Effects of urbanization on carnivore species distribution and richness. Journal of Mammalogy. 91: 1322.","pubmedId":"","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1644/09-MAMM-A-312.1"},{"reference":"Poisson MKP, Butler AR, Tate P, Bergeron DH, Moll RJ. 2023. Species-specific responses of mammal activity to exurbanization in New Hampshire, USA. Journal of Urban Ecology 9: 10.1093/jue/juad010.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1093/jue/juad010"},{"reference":"R Core Team. 2000. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. : 10.32614/r.manuals.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.32614/R.manuals"},{"reference":"U.S. Geological Survey. 2024. “Annual NLCD Land Cover Classification.” https://www.usgs.gov/centers/eros/science/annual-nlcd-land-cover-classification Accessed 06-05-2026.
","pubmedId":"","doi":""},{"reference":"Wait KR, Ricketts AM, Ahlers AA. 2018. Land-Use Change Structures Carnivore Communities in Remaining Tallgrass Prairie. The Journal of Wildlife Management. 82: 1491.","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1002/jwmg.21492"},{"reference":"Wickham H, Hester J, Bryan J. 2026. readr: Read Rectangular Text Data. CRAN: Contributed Packages : 10.32614/cran.package.readr.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.32614/CRAN.package.readr"},{"reference":"Wickham H, François R, Henry L, Müller K, Vaughan D. 2026. dplyr: A Grammar of Data Manipulation. CRAN: Contributed Packages : 10.32614/cran.package.dplyr.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.32614/CRAN.package.dplyr"}],"title":"Diel Activity Patterns of Bobcats and Domestic Cats in the Houston Metropolitan Area
","reviews":[],"curatorReviews":[]},{"id":"d5d02fdd-e055-4c34-ab9d-02984004ab42","decision":"publish","abstract":"We investigated whether bobcats (Lynx rufus) and domestic cats (Felis catus) exhibit distinct daily activity patterns or use different habitats in the Houston, Texas metropolitan area. Motion-activated cameras were deployed at 33 sites for 16 one-month sampling periods from 2020 - 2024. Bobcats exhibited primarily nocturnal activity wherever they were present. Domestic cats were primarily nocturnal at sites where no bobcats were detected. Bobcats and domestic cats overlapped at sites with a mixture of forest and developed land and domestic cats shifted to more daytime activity. Both temporal and spatial niche partitioning appear to facilitate predator coexistence in urban landscapes.
","acknowledgements":"Many thanks to Courtney Hall, Memorial Park Conservancy; Ethan Placke, Houston Parks Board; and University of Houston students who contributed to field work, photo management, photo tagging, and landcover analysis: field team leaders J. Berg, V. Urdaneta Hernandez, M. Iacampo, C. Rodriguez, K. Kalenga, T. Snyder, A. Uribe, G. Kostecki, D. Farfan, S. Sullivan; data managers J. Cabello, J. Samuel, Q. Le, M. Castro, M. Velez, A. Mendoza, X. Johnson, K. Zinsmeyer, and J. Enriquez; volunteers J. Vasquez, S. Dreyer, and N. Parker, first year students in Honors Biology for Science Majors 1 (2020-2024), and Biology majors in Ecology and Evolution Laboratory (2020 – 2025).
We are grateful to the parks and landowners who hosted cameras: Houston Arboretum and Nature Center, Houston Parks and Recreation Department, Pearland Parks Department, League City Parks and Recreation, Challenger 7 Memorial Park, Glenwood Cemetery, South Park Cemetery, Mount Olivet Catholic Cemetery, Harris County Cemetery, Barrett Station Evergreen Cemetery, Golfcrest Golf Course, Gus Wortham Golf Course, Memorial Park Golf Course, Hermann Park Golf Course, UH Office of Sustainability, and UH Coastal Center.
This manuscript was improved by insightful comments from M.H. Hanke and an anonymous reviewer.
","authors":[{"affiliations":["University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States","University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biology and Biochemistry"],"credit":["conceptualization","dataCuration","investigation","validation","writing_originalDraft","writing_reviewEditing","formalAnalysis"],"email":"lalavina@CougarNet.UH.EDU","firstName":"Leila","lastName":"Alavi Naini","submittingAuthor":false,"correspondingAuthor":false,"equalContribution":true,"WBId":null,"orcid":"0009-0006-6809-552X"},{"affiliations":["University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States","University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biomedical Engineering"],"credit":["conceptualization","formalAnalysis","investigation","visualization","writing_originalDraft","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"nmlinde@CougarNet.UH.EDU","firstName":"Natalie","lastName":"Linde","submittingAuthor":false,"correspondingAuthor":false,"equalContribution":true,"WBId":null,"orcid":"0009-0003-0922-1547"},{"affiliations":["University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States","University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biology and Biochemistry"],"credit":["conceptualization","dataCuration","investigation","validation","writing_originalDraft","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"ssmalik4@CougarNet.UH.EDU","firstName":"Sarah","lastName":"Malik","submittingAuthor":false,"correspondingAuthor":false,"equalContribution":true,"WBId":null,"orcid":"0009-0004-4993-2834 "},{"affiliations":["University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States","University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biology and Biochemistry"],"credit":["conceptualization","dataCuration","investigation","visualization","writing_originalDraft","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"yasyed2@CougarNet.UH.EDU","firstName":"Yasin","lastName":"Syed","submittingAuthor":false,"correspondingAuthor":false,"equalContribution":true,"WBId":null,"orcid":"0009-0002-6376-5556 "},{"affiliations":["University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States","University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States"],"departments":["Honors College","Department of Biology and Biochemistry"],"credit":["formalAnalysis","fundingAcquisition","methodology","project","resources","validation","writing_reviewEditing"],"email":"aocheek@uh.edu","firstName":"Ann Oliver","lastName":"Cheek","submittingAuthor":true,"correspondingAuthor":true,"equalContribution":false,"WBId":null,"orcid":"ORCID 0009-0005-0386-2057"}],"awards":[],"conflictsOfInterest":"The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.
","dataTable":{"url":null},"extendedData":[],"funding":"This work was funded by the University of Houston Office of the Provost Multicultural Student Success Initiative and Cougar Initiative to Engage; the EJK Foundation, and University of Houston Honors College. In-kind support for field work and photo management was provided by Memorial Park Conservancy and Houston Parks Board.
","image":{"url":"https://portal.micropublication.org/uploads/b4b6c42e53559f8073cfb53e0c74721a.png"},"imageCaption":"(A) US state of Texas. Red square indicates the city of Houston. (B) Map of 33 camera sites in the Houston, TX metropolitan area where at least one bobcat or domestic cat was detected during the four-year period, October 1, 2020 to August 31, 2024. Blue markers indicate sites where only bobcats were detected, pink markers indicate sites where only domestic cats were detected, and white markers represent locations where both species were detected. (C and D) Diel activity of bobcats (blue) and domestic cats (pink) across a 24h period at sites where only one of the species occurred (C) and at sites where both species occurred (D). Bar heights in panels C and D are the proportion of species-specific observations per hour.
","imageTitle":"Spatial and diel distribution of bobcats and domestic cats
","methods":"Trail cameras (Bushnell Trophy Cam HD model 11874C, Bushnell Core Low Glow model 119936C, Stealth Cam G45NG Pro) were mounted at approximately 1 meter above ground to optimize detection of mammals larger than 30 g. Camera sites were spaced at least 1 km apart to minimize detecting the same individual repeatedly. Cameras operated for a minimum of 30 consecutive days per sampling period four times per year - January, April, July, and October.
All photos were annotated independently by two volunteers, with identification discrepancies resolved by an expert reviewer. Filename, date, time, and location were recorded for each detection. Detections from 16 sampling seasons (10/1/2020 - 8/31/2024) were analyzed. Analyses were conducted in R (R Core Team, 2026). Data management was performed using the readr (Wickham et al., 2026) and dplyr (Wickham et al., 2026) packages. Timestamps in the raw data were recorded in Universal Coordinated Time (UTC). UTC timestamps were converted to local time using the lubridate package (Grolemund & Wickham, 2011), transformed to radians, and converted to solar time using the sunTime function in the overlap package (Meredith et al., 2024). SunTime standardizes observation times relative to sunrise and sunset based on observation date and geographic coordinates. Temporal overlap between bobcat and domestic cat activity was estimated as Δ̂ using the overlap package. Overlap between species-specific activity patterns was calculated separately for sites where each species occurred alone versus sites where both species occurred. Watson’s U2 test was used to compare diel activity between bobcats and domestic cats at sites occupied by only one of the species and at sites occupied by both species. Occupancy was defined as at least one confirmed detection occurring at a site during the study period (Oct 2020 – Aug 2024). Watson's U2 test was performed in MATLAB 24.1.0.2537033 (2024b).
Camera locations were mapped and land cover within a 1 km radius around each camera was visualized using Google Earth Pro on Desktop (https://www.google.com/earth/about/versions/#earth-pro). Land cover classes surrounding each site were characterized according to the modified Anderson Level II classification system (USGS, 2024). Area occupied by each land cover type was quantified using the freehand polygon measurement tool in Google Earth Pro on Desktop. Downtown Houston was defined as the location of the 1910 Harris County Courthouse, 29.760890, -95.359704. Map inset showing Texas within the United States was created using Gemini Flash 3.5 and specifying datum WGS 84.
The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee reviewed this study and determined that no protocol was required because animals are not handled nor are they disturbed by the cameras.
Animal detection data, MatLab script and R script are available at datadryad.org, DOI: 10.5061/dryad.s4mw6m9jg
","reagents":"","patternDescription":"Predators may reduce interference competition by avoiding interaction with each other, either through spatial or temporal separation. Where spatial overlap occurs, they may change their active period and their preferred prey (Kronfeld-Schor and Dayan, 2003). Human land use also influences predator interactions because larger predators tend to move away from human development or shift to primarily nocturnal activity (Gaynor et al., 2018).
Bobcats (Lynx rufus) and free-ranging, unowned domestic cats (Felis catus) are carnivores with similar diets consisting of a high proportion of rodents and rabbits (Hass, 2009; Kitts-Morgan, 2015; Loss et al., 2013). Habitat preferences create partial spatial separation of these two predators. Bobcats prefer areas with less human development (Horne et al., 2009), while domestic cats are more likely to occur in areas with higher human population density (Herrera et al., 2022). Even in rural areas, domestic cats tend to remain near human infrastructure (Dunford et al., 2024). Bobcats and domestic cats co-occur in rural, suburban, and exurban landscapes (MacDougall and Sander, 2022; Ordenana et al., 2010; Wait et al., 2018), raising the possibility that temporal separation could reduce interference competition.
Bobcats are active during the day and at night, with more detections at night in exurban areas (Mayer et al., 2023; Poisson et al., 2023). Free-ranging domestic cats are active throughout the day and night in some locations (Dunford et al., 2024; Germain et al., 2008; Herrera et al., 2022), but are primarily nocturnal in others (Krauze-Gryz et al., 2012). Although several studies of urban mammal communities mention detections of both domestic cats and bobcats in the same region, no studies have compared space use or activity periods between these two felids.
The objective of this study was to compare diel activity patterns of bobcats and domestic cats where each species occurred without the other and where they occurred together across a large urban area. Motion-activated trail cameras were deployed in parks, cemeteries, golf courses, and natural areas along two transect lines in the Houston, TX metropolitan area (Fig 1A and B). The Houston metropolitan area covers 22,891 km2 with a population of more than 7 million people (Census Reporter, 2025). To sample activity throughout the year, camera traps were deployed in January (winter), April (spring), July (summer), and October (fall) (Magle et al., 2019). Detection data were pooled across 16 sampling seasons (2020 to 2024) to obtain a general pattern of diel activity for each species.
During 14,386 trap-days from October 1, 2020 to August 31, 2024, we collected a total of 81 bobcat detections and 795 domestic cat detections across 33 sites. Bobcats alone were detected at seven sites, all of which were more than 13.7 km outside of downtown Houston (Fig 1B). Across these seven sites, developed land accounted for a mean of 50% (± 19%, 1 s.d.) of the land cover within a 1 km radius of the camera and forest accounted for 27% (± 13%) of land cover. Domestic cats alone were detected at 19 sites. Nearly all of these sites were within 12 km of downtown Houston, inside the innermost multi-lane beltway, interstate 610 (Fig 1B). Across these 19 sites, developed land constituted 82 ± 14% (mean ± 1 s.d.) of land cover within the camera buffer, whereas forest accounted for 12 ± 13%). Bobcats and domestic cats overlapped at seven sites where 65% (± 16%) of land cover was developed land and 16% (± 7%) was forest (Fig. 1B). Spatial overlap occurred at sites located 6 – 44 km outside of downtown Houston.
The diel activity patterns of bobcats and domestic cats were similar where only one species occurred without the other (Fig 1C, n = 49 bobcat detections; n = 696 domestic cat detections; Watson’s U2 = 0.0753, p < 0.20). Both species were more active at night than during the day, with high overlap between their diel activity patterns, overlap coefficient Δ̂ = 0.852. At sites occupied only by bobcats, 67% of bobcat detections occurred at night. At sites with domestic cats but no bobcats, 85% of domestic cat detections occurred at night. Where the two species co-occurred spatially, bobcats were still primarily active at night. In contrast, only 51% of domestic cat detections occurred at night. Activity patterns of the two species overlapped much less where they co-occurred, Δ̂ = 0.647. Domestic cat diel activity differed significantly from bobcat activity (Fig 1D, n = 32 bobcat detections; n = 99 domestic cat detections; Watson’s U2 = 0.189, p < 0.05).
Bobcats and domestic cats had a similar primarily nocturnal activity pattern at sites where only one felid occurred. Both species prey on small nocturnal mammals, including rodents and rabbits. Nocturnal activity may be a strategy that simultaneously matches peak prey activity (Kronfeld-Schor and Dayan 2003) and avoids peak human activity (Gaynor et al., 2018). Where domestic cats and bobcats occupied the same sites, domestic cats shifted their diel activity toward pre-dawn through early morning (03:00 – 10:00) and late day through early night (16:00 – 21:00) with very little activity in the middle of the day or night. This shift is evident in the smaller Δ̂ overlap coefficient for domestic cat and bobcat activity at sites where both species were present. In other regions where larger and smaller felids overlap spatially, the smaller species tends to shift or even restrict its active period relative to the larger species to avoid being eaten or to exploit different prey (Hass, 2009). Shifting to more activity in low light periods at dawn and dusk may allow free-ranging domestic cats to reduce potential encounters with bobcats, thereby reducing the threat of predation. Additionally, changing their active period may allow domestic cats to exploit prey with a similar active period, particularly ground-feeding or ground-nesting birds. Across the United States, birds make up approximately 10% of prey killed by free-ranging domestic cats (Loss et al., 2013). Domestic cats are often assumed to depend on humans for food, but few domestic cats observed in this study were collared, raising the possibility that they survive by hunting.
A combination of spatial and temporal partitioning appears to facilitate coexistence of bobcats and free-ranging domestic cats in the Houston metropolitan area. Bobcats were detected more frequently in areas with ≤ 65% developed land cover, while domestic cats were detected more frequently in areas with ≥ 65% developed land cover. Where domestic cats and bobcats overlapped spatially, domestic cat activity shifted from primarily nocturnal to the night-day boundary. Temporal niche partitioning may allow domestic cats to avoid interspecific competition with sympatric bobcats.
","references":[{"reference":"Census Reporter. 2025. https://censusreporter.org/profiles/31000US26420-houston-pasadena-the-woodlands-tx-metro-area/
","pubmedId":"","doi":""},{"reference":"Dunford CE, Loca S, Marks NJ, Scantlebury M. 2024. Seasonal habitat selection and ranging of domestic cats (Felis catus) in rural and urban environments. Animal Biotelemetry 12: 10.1186/s40317-024-00367-0.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1186/s40317-024-00367-0"},{"reference":"Gaynor KM, Hojnowski CE, Carter NH, Brashares JS. 2018. The influence of human disturbance on wildlife nocturnality. Science 360: 1232-1235.
","pubmedId":"","doi":" 10.1126/science.aar7121"},{"reference":"Germain E, Benhamou S, Poulle ML. 2008. Spatio-temporal sharing between the European wildcat, the domestic cat and their hybrids. Journal of Zoology. 276
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00479.x"},{"reference":"Grolemund G, Wickham H. 2011. Dates and Times Made Easy with lubridate. Journal of Statistical Software 40: 10.18637/jss.v040.i03.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.18637/jss.v040.i03"},{"reference":"Hass CC. 2009. Competition and coexistence in sympatric bobcats and pumas. Journal of Zoology 278: 174-180.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1111/j.1469-7998.2009.00565.x"},{"reference":"Herrera DJ, Cove MV, Mc Shea WJ, Decker S, Flockhart DTT, Moore SM, Gallo T. 2022. Spatial and temporal overlap of domestic cats (Felis catus) and native urban wildlife. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 10
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.3389/fevo.2022.1048585"},{"reference":"Horne JS, Haines AM, Tewes ME, Laack LL. 2009. Habitat Partitioning by Sympatric Ocelots and Bobcats: Implications for Recovery of Ocelots in Southern Texas. The Southwestern Naturalist 54: 119-126.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1894/PS-49.1"},{"reference":"Kitts-Morgan SE. 2015. Sustainable ecosystems: Domestic cats and their effect on wildlife populations. American Society of Animal Science. 93: 848.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.2527/jas2014-8557"},{"reference":"Krauze-Gryz D, Gryz JB, Groszczynski J, Chylarecki P, Zmihorski M. 2012. The good, the bad, and the ugly: space use and intraguild interactions among three opportunistic predators - cat (Felis catus), dog (Canis lupus familiaris), and red fox (Vulpes vulpes) - under human pressure. Canadian Journal of Zoology. 90: 1402.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1139/cjz-2012-0072"},{"reference":"Kronfeld-Schor N, Dayan T. 2003. Partitioning of Time as an Ecological Resource. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 34
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132435"},{"reference":"Loss SR, Will T, Marra PP. 2013. The impact of free-ranging domestic cats on wildlife of the United States. Nature Communications 4: 10.1038/ncomms2380.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1038/ncomms2380"},{"reference":"MacDougall B, Sander H. 2022. Mesopredator occupancy patterns in a small city in an intensively agricultural region. Urban Ecosystems. 25: 1231.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1007/s11252-022-01214-x"},{"reference":"Magle SB, Fidino M, Lehrer EW, Gallo T, Mulligan MP, Rios MJ. 2019. Advancing urban wildlife research through a multi-city collaboration. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 17: 232.","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1002/fee.2030"},{"reference":"Mayer AE, Ganoe LS, Brown C, Gerber BD. 2023. Diel activity structures the occurrence of a mammal community in a human-dominated landscape. Ecology and Evolution. 13","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1002/ece3.10684"},{"reference":"Meredith M, Ridout M, Campbell LAD. 2013. overlap: Estimates of Coefficient of Overlapping for Animal Activity Patterns. CRAN: Contributed Packages : 10.32614/cran.package.overlap.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.32614/CRAN.package.overlap"},{"reference":"Ordeñana MA, Crooks KR, Boydston EE, Fisher RN, Lyren LM, Siudyla S, et al., Van Vuren. 2010. Effects of urbanization on carnivore species distribution and richness. Journal of Mammalogy 91: 1322-1331.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1644/09-MAMM-A-312.1"},{"reference":"Poisson MKP, Butler AR, Tate P, Bergeron DH, Moll RJ. 2023. Species-specific responses of mammal activity to exurbanization in New Hampshire, USA. Journal of Urban Ecology 9: 10.1093/jue/juad010.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1093/jue/juad010"},{"reference":"R Core Team. 2000. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. : 10.32614/r.manuals.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.32614/R.manuals"},{"reference":"U.S. Geological Survey. 2024. “Annual NLCD Land Cover Classification.” https://www.usgs.gov/centers/eros/science/annual-nlcd-land-cover-classification Accessed 06-05-2026.
","pubmedId":"","doi":""},{"reference":"Wait KR, Ricketts AM, Ahlers AA. 2018. Land-Use Change Structures Carnivore Communities in Remaining Tallgrass Prairie. The Journal of Wildlife Management. 82: 1491.","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.1002/jwmg.21492"},{"reference":"Wickham H, Hester J, Bryan J. 2015. readr: Read Rectangular Text Data. CRAN: Contributed Packages : 10.32614/cran.package.readr.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.32614/CRAN.package.readr"},{"reference":"Wickham H, François R, Henry L, Müller K, Vaughan D. 2026. dplyr: A Grammar of Data Manipulation. CRAN: Contributed Packages : 10.32614/cran.package.dplyr.
","pubmedId":"","doi":"10.32614/CRAN.package.dplyr"}],"title":"Diel Activity Patterns of Bobcats and Domestic Cats in the Houston Metropolitan Area
","reviews":[],"curatorReviews":[]}]}},"species":{"species":[{"value":"acer saccharum","label":"Acer saccharum","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"TreeGenes","modLink":"https://treegenesdb.org","linkVariable":""},{"value":"achillea millefolium","label":"Achillea millefolium","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"acinetobacter baylyi","label":"Acinetobacter baylyi","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"actinobacteria bacterium","label":"Actinobacteria bacterium","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"adelges tsugae","label":"Adelges tsugae","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"adenocaulon chilense","label":"Adenocaulon chilense","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"aedes japonicus","label":"Aedes japonicus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"aegorhinus vitulus","label":"Aegorhinus vitulus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"alaimidae","label":"Alaimidae","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"allobates femoralis","label":"Allobates femoralis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"alnus glutinosa","label":"Alnus glutinosa","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"alosa aestivalis","label":"Alosa aestivalis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"alosa pseudoharengus","label":"Alosa pseudoharengus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"alternaria alternata","label":"Alternaria alternata","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"amynthas agrestis","label":"Amynthas Agrestis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"ancylostoma caninum","label":"Ancylostoma caninum","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"ancylostoma ceylanicum","label":"Ancylostoma ceylanicum","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"anemone multifida","label":"Anemone multifida","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"anguilla rostrata","label":"Anguilla rostrata","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"anisakis simplex","label":"Anisakis simplex","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"anomala albopilosa","label":"Anomala albopilosa","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"anthomyiidae sp","label":"Anthomyiidae sp","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"anthomyiidae sp","label":"Anthomyiidae sp","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"arabidopsis","label":"Arabidopsis","imageSrc":"arabidopsis.png","imageAlt":"Arabidopsis graphic by Zoe Zorn CC BY 4.0","mod":"TAIR","modLink":"https://arabidopsis.org","linkVariable":""},{"value":"architeuthis dux","label":"Architeuthis dux","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"arion vulgaris","label":"Arion vulgaris","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"armeria","label":"Armeria","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"artemia","label":"Artemia","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"arthrobacter sp.","label":"Arthrobacter sp.","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"ascaridia","label":"Ascaridia","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"ascaridia galli","label":"Ascaridia galli","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"asparagopsis taxiformis","label":"Asparagopsis taxiformis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"astatotilapia burtoni","label":"Astatotilapia burtoni","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"avena sativa","label":"Avena sativa","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"aves","label":"Aves","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"bacillus","label":"Bacillus (firmicutes)","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"bacillus cereus","label":"Bacillus cereus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"bacillus mycoides","label":"Bacillus mycoides","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"bacillus subtilis","label":"Bacillus subtilis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"bacillus thuringiensis","label":"Bacillus thuringiensis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"bacillus toyonensis","label":"Bacillus toyonensis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"bacillus wiedmannii","label":"Bacillus wiedmannii","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"bacteria","label":"Bacteria","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"bacteriophage","label":"Bacteriophage","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"bactrocera","label":"Bactrocera sp.","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"batrachospermum gelatinosum","label":"Batrachospermum gelatinosum","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"betula lenta","label":"Betula lenta","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"betula nigra","label":"Betula nigra","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"bombus dahlbohmii","label":"Bombus dahlbohmii","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"bombus terrestris","label":"Bombus terrestris","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"bombyx mori","label":"Bombyx mori","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"bos taurus","label":"Bos Taurus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"brachygobius doriae","label":"Brachygobius doriae","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"brassica oleracea","label":"Brassica oleracea","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"brassica rapa","label":"Brassica rapa","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"brugia malayi","label":"Brugia malayi","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"WormBase","modLink":"www.wormbase.org","linkVariable":""},{"value":"burkholderia thailandensis","label":"Burkholderia thailandensis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"buttiauxella","label":"Buttiauxella","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"caenorhabditis brenneri","label":"Caenorhabditis brenneri","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"WormBase","modLink":"www.wormbase.org","linkVariable":""},{"value":"caenorhabditis briggsae","label":"Caenorhabditis briggsae","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"WormBase","modLink":"www.wormbase.org","linkVariable":""},{"value":"c. elegans","label":"Caenorhabditis elegans","imageSrc":"c-elegans.jpg","imageAlt":"C. elegans graphic by Zoe Zorn CC BY 4.0","mod":"WormBase","modLink":"https://wormbase.org","linkVariable":""},{"value":"caenorhabditis inopinata","label":"Caenorhabditis inopinata","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"WormBase","modLink":"www.wormbase.org","linkVariable":""},{"value":"caenorhabditis japonica","label":"Caenorhabditis japonica","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"WormBase","modLink":"www.wormbase.org","linkVariable":""},{"value":"caenorhabditis nigoni","label":"Caenorhabditis nigoni","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"caenorhabditis remanei","label":"Caenorhabditis remanei","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"WormBase","modLink":"www.wormbase.org","linkVariable":""},{"value":"caenorhabditis tropicalis","label":"Caenorhabditis tropicalis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"calidifontibacillus","label":"Calidifontibacillus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"calidifontibacillus erzuremensis","label":"Calidifontibacillus erzuremensis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"calliphora sp","label":"Calliphora sp","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"caltha sagittata","label":"Caltha sagittata","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"cambarus latimanus","label":"Cambarus latimanus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"candida albicans","label":"Candida albicans","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"canis familiaris","label":"Canis familiaris","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"cannabis sativa","label":"Cannabis sativa","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"caretta caretta","label":"Caretta caretta","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"cassiopea xamachana","label":"Cassiopea xamachana","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"caulobacter vibrioides","label":"Caulobacter vibrioides","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"cephalopods","label":"Cephalopoda","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"cerastium arvense","label":"Cerastium arvense","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"ceriodaphnia","label":"Ceriodaphnia","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"ceroglossus suturalis","label":"Ceroglossus suturalis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"chaetoceros","label":"Chaetoceros","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"chamaecrista fasciculata","label":"Chamaecrista fasciculata","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"chilicola chalcidiformis","label":"Chilicola chalcidiformis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"chitinimonas","label":"Chitinimonas","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"chlamydomonas reinhardtii","label":"Chlamydomonas reinhardtii","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"chromobacterium","label":"Chromobacterium","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"chrysemys picta","label":"Chrysemys picta","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"chrysoperla rufilabris","label":"Chrysoperla rufilabris","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"citrus","label":"Citrus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"clavibacter sp.","label":"Clavibacter sp.","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"colinus virginianus","label":"Colinus virginianus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"crassostrea virginica","label":"Crassostrea virginica","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"crithidia fasciculata","label":"Crithidia fasciculata","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"cutibacterium acnes","label":"Cutibacterium acnes","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"cyanobacteria","label":"Cyanobacteria","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"daphnia","label":"Daphnia","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"daphnia pulex","label":"Daphnia pulex","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"diabrotica virgifera","label":"Diabrotica virgifera","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"diabrotica virgifera virgifera virus 1","label":"Diabrotica virgifera virgifera virus 1","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"d. discoideum","label":"Dictyostelium discoideum","imageSrc":"dicty.png","imageAlt":"D. discoideum","mod":"dictyBase","modLink":"http://dictybase.org","linkVariable":""},{"value":"diptera","label":"Diptera","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"dotocryptus bellicosus","label":"Dotocryptus bellicosus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"drechmeria coniospora","label":"Drechmeria coniospora","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"drosophila","label":"Drosophila","imageSrc":"drosophila.png","imageAlt":"Drosophila graphic by Zoe Zorn CC BY 4.0","mod":"FlyBase","modLink":"https://flybase.org/doi/","linkVariable":"doi"},{"value":"dryopteris campyloptera","label":"Dryopteris campyloptera","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"dryopteris expansa","label":"Dryopteris expansa","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"dryopteris intermedia","label":"Dryopteris intermedia","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"dugesia dorotocephala","label":"Dugesia dorotocephala","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"elasmobranchii","label":"Elasmobranchii","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"embryophyta","label":"Embryophyta","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"enoploteuthis chunii","label":"Enoploteuthis chunii","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"enterobacter aerogenes","label":"Enterobacter aerogenes","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"enterococcus raffinosus","label":"Enterococcus raffinosus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"epichloë coenophiala","label":"Epichloë coenophiala","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"equus caballus","label":"Equus caballus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"erigeron sp","label":"Erigeron sp","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"eristalis","label":"Eristalis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"eruca vesicaria","label":"Eruca vesicaria","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"erwinia carotovora","label":"Erwinia carotovora","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"erythronium americanum","label":"Erythronium americanum","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"escherichia coli","label":"Escherichia coli","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"eukaryota","label":"Eukaryotes","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"felis catus","label":"Felis catus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"francisella novicida","label":"Francisella novicida","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"francisella tularensis","label":"Francisella tularensis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"fraxinus americana","label":"Fraxinus americana","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"fucus distichus","label":"Fucus distichus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"fungi","label":"Fungi","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"gasteropelecus sp.","label":"Gasteropelecus sp.","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"geranium sp","label":"Geranium sp","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"girardia","label":"Girardia","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"glaucomys volans","label":"Glaucomys volans","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"glycine max","label":"Glycine max","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"Soybase","modLink":"https://soybase.org","linkVariable":""},{"value":"glyptemys insculpta","label":"Glyptemys insculpta","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"gossypium hirsutum","label":"Gossypium hirsutum","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"CottonGen","modLink":"https://www.cottongen.org/","linkVariable":""},{"value":"gromphadorhina portentosa","label":"Gromphadorhina portentosa","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"gryllodes sigillatus","label":"Gryllodes sigillatus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"haliotis rufescens","label":"Haliotis rufescens","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"hepacivirus hominis","label":"Hepatitis C Virus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"herpes simplex virus type 1","label":"Herpes simplex virus type 1","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"human","label":"Human","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"human coronavirus oc43","label":"Human coronavirus OC43","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"hydra vulgaris","label":"Hydra vulgaris","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"hydropsyche sp","label":"Hydropsyche sp","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"hymenoptera","label":"Hymenoptera","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"Hymenoptera Genome Database","modLink":"https://hymenoptera.elsiklab.missouri.edu/","linkVariable":""},{"value":"hypochaeris radicata","label":"Hypochaeris radicata","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"hypodynerus vespiformis","label":"Hypodynerus vespiformis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"iflaviridae","label":"Iflaviridae","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"iflavuris","label":"Iflavirus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"ipomoea hederacea","label":"Ipomoea hederacea","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"ischnomera","label":"Ischnomera","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"ischnomera ruficollis","label":"Ischnomera ruficollis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"julidochromis marlieri","label":"Julidochromis marlieri","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"juniperus virginiana","label":"Juniperus virginiana","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"kluyveromyces marxianus","label":"Kluyveromyces marxianus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"l. casei","label":"L. casei","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"lacticaseibacillus casei","label":"Lacticaseibacillus casei","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"larentiinae sp","label":"Larentiinae sp","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"laurus nobilis","label":"Laurus nobilis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"lepidoptera","label":"Lepidoptera","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"leucanthemum vulgare","label":"Leucanthemum vulgare","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"linepithema humile","label":"Linepithema humile","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"liometopum occidentale","label":"Liometopum occidentale","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"lolium arundinaceum","label":"Lolium arundinaceum","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"lumbriculus variegatus","label":"Lumbriculus variegatus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"lumbricus terrestris","label":"Lumbricus terrestris","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"lupinus polyphyllus","label":"Lupinus polyphyllus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"lycorma delicatula","label":"Lycorma delicatula","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"lynx rufus","label":"Lynx rufus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"magnaporthe oryzae","label":"Magnaporthe oryzae","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"mammalia","label":"Mammalia","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"manihot esculenta","label":"Manihot esculenta","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"medicago lupulina","label":"Medicago lupulina","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"meloidogyne","label":"Meloidogyne","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"mimus polyglottos","label":"Mimus polyglottos","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"bryophyta","label":"Mosses","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"mouse","label":"Mouse","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"MGI","modLink":"https://informatics.jax.org","linkVariable":""},{"value":"m. minutoides","label":"Mus minutoides","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"mycobacterium smegmatis","label":"Mycobacterium smegmatis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"nakaseomyces glabratus","label":"Nakaseomyces glabratus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"nauphoeta cinerea","label":"Nauphoeta cinerea","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"neurospora","label":"Neurospora","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"n. benthamiana","label":"Nicotiana benthamiana","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"Solgenomics Network","modLink":"https://solgenomics.net/organism/Nicotiana_benthamiana/genome","linkVariable":""},{"value":"nicotiana tabacum","label":"Nicotiana tabacum","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"noctuidae","label":"Noctuidae","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"noctuidae sp","label":"Noctuidae sp","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"nothobranchius furzeri","label":"Nothobranchius furzeri","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"onchocerca volvulus","label":"Onchocerca volvulus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"WormBase","modLink":"www.wormbase.org","linkVariable":""},{"value":"orconectes virilis","label":"Orconectes virilis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"ormia ochracea","label":"Ormia ochracea","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"o. sativa","label":"Oryza sativa","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"Gramene","modLink":"https://www.gramene.org/","linkVariable":""},{"value":"other","label":"Other","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":null,"modLink":null,"linkVariable":null},{"value":"oxalis enneaphylla","label":"Oxalis enneaphylla","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"paenarthrobacter nicotinovorans","label":"Paenarthrobacter nicotinovorans","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"paenarthrobacter nicotinovorans","label":"Paenarthrobacter nicotinovorans","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"pantoea","label":"Pantoea","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"pantoea agglomerans","label":"Pantoea agglomerans","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"papaver sp","label":"Papaver sp","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"paramecium bursaria","label":"Paramecium bursaria","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"partitiviridae","label":"Partitiviridae","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"pelodiscus sinensis","label":"Pelodiscus sinensis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"perezia recurvata","label":"Perezia recurvata","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"petromyzon marinus","label":"Petromyzon marinus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"photinus pyralis","label":"Photinus pyralis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"photinus pyralis associated partiti-like virus","label":"Photinus pyralis associated partiti-like virus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"photinus pyralis iflavirus 1","label":"Photinus pyralis iflavirus 1","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"physcomitrium patens","label":"Physcomitrium patens","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"pinus strobus","label":"Pinus strobus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"pinus taeda","label":"Pinus taeda","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"platycheirus","label":"Platycheirus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"plectus sambesii","label":"Plectus sambesii","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"pogonomyrmex occidentalis","label":"Pogonomyrmex occidentalis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"poncirus trifoliata","label":"Poncirus trifoliata","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"populus deltoides","label":"Populus deltoides","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"potato virus y","label":"Potato virus Y","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"primula magellanica","label":"Primula magellanica","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"pristionchus pacificus","label":"Pristionchus pacificus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"WormBase","modLink":"www.wormbase.org","linkVariable":""},{"value":"prunus persica","label":"Prunus persica","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"Genome Database for Rosaceae","modLink":"https://www.rosaceae.org/","linkVariable":""},{"value":"psalmopoeus iriminia","label":"Psalmopoeus iriminia","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"pseudanabaena sp.","label":"Pseudanabaena sp.","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"pseudomonas","label":"Pseudomonas","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"pseudomonas aeruginosa","label":"Pseudomonas aeruginosa","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"pseudomonas glycinae","label":"Pseudomonas glycinae","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"pseudomonas putida","label":"Pseudomonas putida","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"pseudomonas syringae","label":"Pseudomonas syringae","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"pterophyllum scalare","label":"Pterophyllum scalare","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"python regius","label":"Python regius","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"quercus macrocarpa","label":"Quercus macrocarpa","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"ralstonia solanacearum","label":"Ralstonia solanacearum","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"ranitomeya imitator","label":"Ranitomeya imitator","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"ranunculus peduncularis","label":"Ranunculus peduncularis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"rat","label":"Rat","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"RGD","modLink":"https://rgd.mcw.edu","linkVariable":""},{"value":"rheinheimera","label":"Rheinheimera","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"ribes rubrum","label":"Ribes rubrum","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"sars-cov-2","label":"SARS-CoV-2","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"s. cerevisiae","label":"Saccharomyces cerevisiae","imageSrc":"yeast.png","imageAlt":"Yeast graphic by Zoe Zorn CC BY 4.0","mod":"SGD","modLink":"https://yeastgenome.org","linkVariable":""},{"value":"saccharomyces paradoxus","label":"Saccharomyces paradoxus ","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"s. uvarum","label":"Saccharomyces uvarum","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"schistosoma","label":"Schistosoma","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"schizosaccharomyces japonicus","label":"Schizosaccharomyces japonicus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"s. pombe","label":"Schizosaccharomyces pombe","imageSrc":"pombe.png","imageAlt":"Pombe graphic by Zoe Zorn © Caltech","mod":"PomBase","modLink":"https://www.pombase.org/reference/PMID:","linkVariable":"pmId"},{"value":"schmidtea mediterranea","label":"Schmidtea mediterranea","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"senecio sp","label":"Senecio sp","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"simocephalus","label":"Simocephalus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"siraitia grosvenorii","label":"Siraitia grosvenorii","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"solanum lycopersicum","label":"Solanum lycopersicum","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"Solgenomics Network","modLink":"https://solgenomics.net/organism/1/view/","linkVariable":""},{"value":"sorghum","label":"Sorghum","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"SorghumBase","modLink":"https://www.sorghumbase.org","linkVariable":""},{"value":"spiroplasma eriocheiris","label":"Spiroplasma eriocheiris","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"staphylococcus aureus","label":"Staphylococcus aureus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"staphylococcus epidermidis","label":"Staphylococcus epidermidis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"steinernema carpocapsae","label":"Steinernema carpocapsae","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"WormBase","modLink":"https://wormbase.org","linkVariable":""},{"value":"steinernema hermaphroditum","label":"Steinernema hermaphroditum","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"stenotrophomonas geniculata","label":"Stenotrophomonas geniculata","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"streptococcus gordonii ","label":"Streptococcus gordonii ","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"streptococcus mutans","label":"Streptococcus mutans","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":" streptococcus pneumoniae","label":"Streptococcus pneumoniae","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"s. purpuratus","label":"Strongylocentrotus purpuratus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"Echinobase","modLink":"https://www.echinobase.org","linkVariable":""},{"value":"strongyloides ratti","label":"Strongyloides ratti","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"WormBase","modLink":"www.wormbase.org","linkVariable":""},{"value":"sulfolobus","label":"Sulfolobus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"symphoricarpos albus","label":"Symphoricarpos albus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"syncirsodes","label":"Syncirsodes","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"synechococcus elongatus","label":"Synechococcus elongatus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"syrphidae","label":"Syrphidae","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"tarantobelus jeffdanielsi","label":"Tarantobelus jeffdanielsi","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"WormBase","modLink":"www.wormbase.org","linkVariable":""},{"value":"taraxacum officinale","label":"Taraxacum officinale","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"tatochila theodice","label":"Tatochila theodice","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"tetrahymena","label":"Tetrahymena","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"tetramorium immigrans","label":"Tetramorium immigrans","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"tomato brown rugose fruit virus","label":"ToBRFV","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"trachemys scripta","label":"Trachemys scripta","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"tribolium castaneum","label":"Tribolium castaneum","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"trichoptera","label":"Trichoptera","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"trichuris muris","label":"Trichuris muris","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"WormBase","modLink":"www.wormbase.org","linkVariable":""},{"value":"trifolium repens","label":"Trifolium repens","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"trypoxylus dichotomus","label":"Trypoxylus dichotomus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"tsuga canadensis","label":"Tsuga canadensis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"ulva expansa","label":"Ulva expansa","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"universal","label":"Universal","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":null,"modLink":null,"linkVariable":null},{"value":"vargula hilgendorfii","label":"Vargula hilgendorfii","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"vespula vulgaris","label":"Vespula vulgaris","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"virus","label":"Virus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"watasenia scintillans","label":"Watasenia scintillans","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"wolbachia pipientis","label":"Wolbachia pipientis","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"xenopus","label":"Xenopus","imageSrc":"xenopus.png","imageAlt":"Xenopus graphic by Zoe Zorn CC BY 4.0","mod":"XenBase","modLink":"https://xenbase.org","linkVariable":""},{"value":"xenorhabdus griffiniae","label":"Xenorhabdus griffiniae","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"yramea cytheris","label":"Yramea cytheris","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"zaprionus indianus","label":"Zaprionus indianus","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"","modLink":"","linkVariable":""},{"value":"zea mays","label":"Zea mays","imageSrc":"","imageAlt":"","mod":"MaizeGDB","modLink":"https://www.maizegdb.org","linkVariable":""},{"value":"zebrafish","label":"Zebrafish","imageSrc":"zebrafish.png","imageAlt":"Zebrafish graphic by Zoe Zorn CC BY 4.0","mod":"ZFIN","modLink":"https://zfin.org","linkVariable":""}]}},"pageContext":{"id":"2509b0b6-0b9c-48a5-bd9b-e925333cca3e","citedBy":[],"parsedCsv":{"csvHeader":[],"csvData":[]}}}, "staticQueryHashes": ["2114697108"]}